The word “euphemism” comes from a complex Greek term consisting of two words: “good” and “I say.” This is a stylistically neutral expression or concept that we use instead of some linguistic unit that is synonymous, which seems rude, tactless or indecent to the speaker. Euphemisms, the examples of which we will give in this article, often mask the essence of the phenomenon, veil it, for example: use instead of “die” - “die”, instead of “lie” - “tell a lie”, replace the phrase “price increase” with “price liberalization” . We can say about the atomic bomb using the word "product".
The historical variability of euphemisms
Euphemisms, in contrast to the common vocabulary, are very sensitive to assessments of certain phenomena by society as "indecent" or "decent." This determines the historical variability of this layer of vocabulary: what appears to be a euphemistic name for one generation in the next generation may be regarded as an unacceptable and undoubted rudeness, which in turn requires a euphemistic replacement. An example is the history of the French words garce and fille. In ancient times, the first was just a feminine correspondence gars, meaning "young man, guy," then the euphemism for the word "whore", but it soon became recognized as rudeness and was replaced in this function by the word fille (one of the meanings), which, in turn, , in French today is no longer considered a substitute and is used in swear words. Similar euphemisms in speech are common in many languages.
A similar picture is observed in the history of the designations of this concept among the Slavs. So, the Russian word “kurva” (compare also Belarusian, Ukrainian and Bulgarian “kurva”, Czech kurva, Polish kurwa) originally meant “chicken”, and then it was used as a euphemism for rude words in the meaning of a slutty woman (compare French cocotte - first “ chicken ", then" slutty woman "). There are also similar English euphemisms.
Correlation with other speech techniques
As a way of periphrastic, indirect and at the same time mitigating designation of a property, object or action, they also correlate with other speech techniques, in particular with litho, which is understood as a technique of expressiveness based on double negation ("not without intent," "indisputable" ) or the shift of denial to the modal part from the affirmative part of the statement (“I do not think that you are right”, - cf .: “I believe that you are not right”), and with another means - meiosis - the reception of expressiveness, the essence of which is intentional downplaying .. Ensivnosti various properties of the subject of speech, processes, actions, etc. ( "It is difficult to call smart" - a silly woman, "He shoots pretty well" - the good direction).
Communication with the nomination
The euphemization process has a close relationship with another - the nomination. This is one of the three fundamental phenomena that shape human speech activity (the other two are assessment and prediction). For cultural, ethical, psychological or other reasons, objects called with difficulty or not called at all require a euphemistic designation. Names are updated because it is necessary to veil or soften again and again the essence of what is considered indecent, uncomfortable in a cultural society. There are, in particular, political euphemisms, an example of which we have already cited (replacing the phrase " price increase" with "price liberalization"). You can find a number of others.
The specifics of euphemisms
Euphemisms, examples of which are very extensive, have their own specifics. It manifests itself both in their linguistic essence, and in what topics are most often subjected to this process, the areas of use of the obtained words, in the types of means and methods by which they are created in the language, in different assessments given by society to particular euphemisms .
The essence of euphemism
The following points are essential for the euphemization process:
- The assessment that the speaker makes to the subject of speech as such, a direct indication of which can be regarded (by a specific addressee or in some social environment) as indecency, harshness, rudeness, etc.
- The selection of such designations that veil, mask the essence of this phenomenon, and not only soften the way it is expressed. This is especially clear on the example of medical euphemisms, semantically vague, for example, “neoplasm” instead of the word “tumor”, or borrowings from other languages (and therefore not quite understandable to most) - a term such as “pediculosis” instead of Russian “lice”, or others euphemisms in Russian, examples of which can be continued.
- Use depends on the conditions of speech and context: the more social control of a certain speech situation and the self-control of one’s speech by the speaker is tougher, the more likely it becomes euphemisms. And vice versa, in situations where speech is poorly controlled, its high automatism is observed (communication with friends, in the family, etc.). Euphemisms, the examples of which we have cited, can be replaced by "direct" means of designation.
Goals for incorporating euphemisms into speech
- The main goal that the speaker pursues when using such words is the desire to avoid communicative conflicts, to create a situation in which the interlocutor will not feel uncomfortable. In euphemisms pursuing this goal in a “softer” form, in comparison with other methods of nomination, an action, an object, a property is called. So, for example, “hearing impaired” is used as a substitute for the word “deaf”, “blind” instead of “blind”, and “untruth” instead of “lies” or “false”; the word “drunk” is replaced by “drunk”, “fat” - "full", etc.Euphemism, the definition of which usually does not present great difficulties, since we do it intuitively, in these cases allows us to communicate without discomfort.
- Camouflage, veiling of the essence of the matter is another important goal with which such replacements are used and created. This is especially characteristic of a totalitarian society, such as, for example, Russia until the very end of the 1980s. Examples of veiling euphemistic expressions hiding the essence of actions and concepts unpleasant for the interlocutor: instead of the word “prison” - “institution”, “informer” - “well-wisher”, as well as numerous entities that have the morpheme “special” in the first part of the word (special settlers, special contingent, special clinic, special department, special distributor, special stores and others), "regulation or ordering of prices" (meaning actually raising them), "unpopular measures" (increasing taxes, for example) and other similar euphemisms. Examples of words can be given by others. In Russian, there are quite a few such pairs.
- This is not all cases where euphemism can be used. The definition of the last, third, case is not so obvious, but you can guess about it. Euphemisms can be used to conceal from others what the speaker wants to tell only a specific recipient. Of course, such "encryption" is relative, it soon becomes imaginary, especially if the messages are published, and not contained in the correspondence of two persons, and thereby become accessible to any listener or reader. For example, this is typical for newspaper ads, the theme of which is the exchange of the area of the apartment (“I change a two-room apartment for a three-room apartment by agreement”), hiring (“Girls without complexes for high-paying work are required”), etc. The meaning of euphemisms, therefore, does not underestimate it.
Spheres and Themes of Euphemization
Evaluation of the words used by the speaker in terms of politeness / rudeness, decency / indecency is focused on certain areas and topics of human activity (as well as relationships between people). They are traditionally considered the following:
- Certain physiological conditions and processes (“free your nose” instead of the words “blow your nose”, “malaise” (about female menstruation), “expect a baby” instead of “get pregnant”, etc.).
- The parts of the body associated with the "bodily lower part" - these objects are such that the euphemistic, indirect designation of them is perceived in everyday speech by most speakers as not quite decent (for example, slang and vernacular names of the male penis: "stick", "device", "instrument " and etc.).
- Relations between the sexes: "to be in an intimate relationship", as well as the vernacular meaning of "meet", that is, to have "sexual relations", etc.
- Death and illness: instead of “getting sick” - “feeling bad”, instead of “syphilis” - “French runny nose”, the word “deceased” instead of “dead”, etc.
That is, euphemism is a synonym for a word, but with a certain semantic connotation of meaning. Themes and areas of their use, as you see, are quite numerous.
Euphemisms in text and spoken language
In the text, euphemisms, examples of which were given by us, are often highlighted with quotation marks and can be accompanied by various metalanguage comments. The author can disclose these names and give them parallel lines. In oral speech, euphemisms are also one of the stylistic means. They allow you to vary the speech of the speakers depending on various conditions, to veil and hide their intentions if necessary, to avoid possible communicative conflicts that may arise with the direct nomination of various actions, objects and properties.
Euphemism men dyspemism
The culture of Russian speech is not limited to the use of euphemisms. In addition to them, there are also dysphemisms - this is an obscene or crude designation of a neutral concept from the beginning with the aim of giving the latter a negative meaning or simply used to enhance speech expressivity. For example, the use of the word “die” instead of “die”, and “face” instead of “face”, etc.
Dysphemism and cacophemism
This term is sometimes used as a synonym for another concept - "cacophemism". Their use, however, should not be reduced only to culturelessness and rudeness. In traditional cultures (for example, East Asian), dysphemisms are widespread in speech quite widely in order to avoid the evil eye: in relation to women, children, or valuable objects. Often, such replacements in use obscure the border between polite self-abasement and superstition.
We examined concepts such as euphemism and dyspemism, as well as cacophemism. The objects and phenomena designated by them are used in the speech by each of us, we do this without even thinking. Now you know what such substitutions are called in Russian, and you can use them more consciously.