What is one of the main charms of interaction between people? Of course, in communication, exchange of thoughts, emotions, feelings with each other through language. Now imagine if all our conversations were reduced exclusively to the transfer of this or that information, naked data without any figurative characteristics and additional meanings that reflect our attitude to what was said. It would be reminiscent of the communication of machines exchanging various combinations of zeros and ones, only instead of numbers - words that do not carry any emotional coloring. The expressiveness of speech is important not only in everyday communication, but also in literature (and here it is "vitally necessary"). Agree, it is difficult to imagine a novel, poem or fairy tale that does not use figurative definitions and other means of artistic expression. That is why in our speech, both oral and written, epithets are important. What it is? It is precisely what helps to make the words and phrases used more colorful, more accurately convey their essential features and express our attitude to them. Further, we will consider this concept in more detail, determine the role and importance of epithets in speech, and also try to classify them depending on the goals and characteristics of the application.
The concept of the epithet and the types of its structures
To begin with, we will present a complete and deeper understanding of the word "epithet": what it is, what structure it has, how it is used in certain situations.
Adjectives as Epithets
From ancient Greek “epithet” is translated as something “attached” or “added” to the main one. And there is. These special expressive words always come as a complement to others denoting an object (object or subject). Usually this is a construction of "definition + noun", where the epithet is a definition, usually an adjective (but not required). Here are simple examples: black melancholy, dead of night, mighty shoulders, sugar lips, a hot kiss, a cheerful coloring, etc.
In this case, adjectives are epithets that allow us to draw a more complete picture of a particular subject: not just longing, but “black,” oppressive, impenetrable; not just a kiss, but "hot", passionate, giving pleasure - such a description makes you feel more deeply what the author wants to convey, to experience some sensations and emotions.
Using other parts of speech as epithets
However, the role of epithets can be played not only by the adjective, often adverbs, nouns, pronouns, and even participial and participial phrases (that is, not a single word, but their combination) play this role. Often it is these parts of speech that allow us to more accurately and brighterly convey the image and create the right atmosphere than adjectives would do.
Consider examples of using various parts of speech as epithets:
- Adverbs In a sentence they are circumstances. Examples: “The grass bloomed cheerfully” (Turgenev); "And bitterly complaining, and bitterly pouring tears" (Pushkin).
- Nouns. They give a figurative characterization of the subject. Act as applications or predicates. Examples: "Oh, cub Volga-mother, yes, she ran back!" (Tolstoy); "Spring of honor, our idol!" (Pushkin).
- Pronouns. They are used as epithets when they express the superlative degree of a phenomenon. Example: "... combat fights ... they say, what more!" (Lermontov).
- Communion. Example: "... I, bewitched, severed the thread of consciousness ..." (Block).
- Participles. Examples: “A leaf ringing and dancing in the silence of centuries” (Krasko); "... bore scribes ... who have nothing in the language except words that do not remember kinship" (Saltykov-Shchedrin).
- The participles and the participles revolutions. Examples: "... playing hide and seek, the sky comes down from the attic" (Pasternak); "... frolic and playing, rumbles ..." (Tyutchev).
Thus, epithets in speech can be not only adjectives, but also other parts of speech, if they help to convey the image and more accurately express the properties of the described subject.
Self epithets
Rarely, but there are cases when expressive means are used in the text without the main word, epithets act as independent definitions without definable ones. Example: “I’m looking for strange and new on the pages of old written books” (Block). Here the epithets of the "strange" and "new" simultaneously play two roles - both the definition and the determined. This technique is characteristic of literature of the era of symbolism.
Methods for classifying epithets
So, now we have a fairly clear idea of ​​such an important term in literary theory as epithets. What is it and how is it used, we examined. However, for a better understanding of this phenomenon, it is important to be able to distinguish and classify epithets according to certain criteria. Despite the fact that the main and most important purpose of using these expressive means is always reduced to one thing - to describe, give an artistic definition of an object or phenomenon, all epithets can be classified. They are divided into groups according to various parameters, which we will consider below.
Genetics of Epithets
The first group divides epithets into species depending on their genetic origin:
- general language (decorating);
- folk poetry (permanent);
- individually copyrighted.
General language, they are also called decorating, are any characteristics that describe objects and phenomena and their properties. Examples: gentle sea, deathly silence, lead clouds, ringing silence, etc. Usually we use them in everyday speech to better convey the atmosphere of the described event / object and our feelings to the interlocutor.
People’s poetic, or permanent, epithets are words or whole expressions that have for many years been firmly entrenched in the minds of people for certain specific words. Examples: good fellow, red girl, clear month, open field and others.
Individual copyright epithets are a product of the creative thought of the author himself. That is, earlier these words or phrases were not used in speech in that meaning, and therefore were not epithets. There are a lot of them in fiction, especially in poetry. Examples: "the face of a thousand-eyed trust ..." (Mayakovsky); “transparent flattery of a necklace”; “rosary of wisdom golden” (Pushkin); "... an eternal motive in the middle of life" (Brodsky).
Metaphor and metonymy epithets
It is possible to divide epithets into groups according to another criterion. Since figurative epithets are often associated with the use of words in a figurative meaning, depending on the type of this figurative word (which is an epithet), we can distinguish:
Metaphorical epithets, as the name implies, are basically metaphors. Examples: "light patterns", "winter silver" (Pushkin); “sad, sad friendship”, “sad, mourning gleam” (Herzen); "barren fields" (Lermontov).
Metonymic epithets are based on the figurative metonymic meaning of a word. Examples: “her hot, scratching whisper” (Gorky); "birch, cheerful language" (Yesenin).
In addition, epithets based on a metaphorical or metonymic meaning can incorporate the properties of other paths: combined with hyperbole, personification and other literary devices.
Examples: “Loud-winged arrows, beating behind their shoulders, sounded / In the procession of an angry god: he walked, like a night” (Homer); “He cursed, begged, cut / climbed after someone to bite into his sides. / In the sky red, like Marseillaise / shuddered, ringing, sunset” (Mayakovsky).
Such use of epithets allows one to express the perception of some phenomena / objects by the author even brighter, stronger, more accurately and convey these feelings to readers or listeners.
Epithets in terms of author's assessment
Epithets can be divided into groups depending on how the author's assessment is expressed in the work:
The former are used to express features and focus on some significant differences, the properties of the subject without expressing an author's assessment of it. Examples: "... in the autumn half-darkness how transparent the garden is” (Brodsky); "Your fence is cast iron pattern / And punch blue flame" (Pushkin).
Expressive epithets (as the name implies) give readers the opportunity to hear the author’s attitude, his clearly expressed assessment of the described subject or phenomenon. Examples: “meaningless and dim light” (Block); "heart - with a cold piece of iron" (Mayakovsky).
However, it is worth noting that such a division is very conditional, since often depictive epithets also have an emotional color and are a consequence of the perception of certain objects by the author.
The Evolution of the Use of Epithets in the Literature
Arguing about what epithets are in literature, one cannot but touch upon the theme of their evolution in time. They are constantly undergoing changes, both historically and culturally. In addition, epithets vary depending on the geography (place of residence) of the people who created them. Our upbringing, features and living conditions, experienced events and phenomena, experience gained - all this affects the created images in speech, as well as the meaning that lies in them.
Epithets and Russian folk art
Epithets - what are these images in folklore? At an early stage in the development of literature, epithets, as a rule, described any physical properties of objects and identified essential, key features in them. The emotional component and expression of attitude to the described object went by the wayside or was completely absent. In addition, folk epithets were distinguished by an exaggeration of the properties of objects and phenomena. Examples: dense forest, good fellow, untold wealth, etc.
Epithets of the Silver Age and Postmodernism
Over time and the development of literature, epithets became more complex, their designs were modified, their role in works changed. The novelty of the poetic language, and therefore the use of epithets, is especially well traced in the literary works of the Silver Age. Wars, rapid scientific and technological progress and related changes in the world led to changes in the worldview of man. Writers and poets embarked on a search for new literary forms. Hence the emergence of a large number of “their” (that is, copyright) words due to the violation of the usual morphemes, connections of foundations, new forms of words and new ways of combining them.
Examples: “Curls sleep on the shoulders of snowy whiteness” (Muravyov); "Laughers ... that laugh with laughter, that laugh mockingly, oh, laugh mockingly!" (Khlebnikov).
A lot of interesting examples in the use of words and unusual images of objects can be found in the work of Mayakovsky. What is the poem “Violin and a little gentle”, in which “the drum ... darted to the burning Kuznetsk and went away”, “the stupid plate pulled out”, “helicon-copper-bear” shouted something to the violin, etc.
Notable in terms of the use of epithets is the literature of postmodernism. This trend (which arose in the 40s and received the greatest dawn in the 80s) contrasts itself with realism (especially socialist realism), which prevailed in Russia until the end of the 70s. Representatives of postmodernism reject the rules and norms developed by cultural traditions. In their work, the boundaries between reality and fiction, reality and art are erased. Hence, a large number of new verbal forms and techniques, a curious and very interesting application of epithets.
Examples: "Diathesis / Diapers Blossomed Golden" (Kibrov); "The acacia branch ... smells like creosote, dust of the vestibule ... on tiptoe in the evening returns to the garden and listens to the movement of electric trains" (Sokolov).
The works of the postmodern era are replete with examples of what epithets are in the literature of our time. One should only read such authors as Sokolov (an example is presented above), Strochkov, Levin, Sorokin, etc.
Fairy tales and their characteristic epithets
A special place is occupied by epithets in fairy tales. Folklore works of different times and different peoples of the world contain a lot of examples of the use of epithets. So, for example, Russian folk tales are characterized by the frequent use of distance epithets, as well as definitions describing the surrounding nature. Examples: "clear field, dark forest, high mountains"; "for the distant lands, in the far-off state" ("Finist - the clear falcon", Russian folk tale).
But Iranian fairy tales, for example, are characterized by oriental imagery, rich ornate speech rich in various epithets. Examples: "... a pious and wise sultan who, with extraordinary thoroughness, delved into the affairs of the state ..." ("History of the Sultan of Sanjar").
So, on the example of the epithets used in folk art, one can trace the cultural characteristics inherent in a particular people.
Epithets in epics and myths of different peoples of the world
At the same time, folklore works of different countries of the world are characterized by common features of using epithets that serve a specific purpose. This can be easily traced by the example of ancient Greek myths, Celtic traditions and Russian epics. All these works are united by metaphorical and fantastic events, epithets with a negative connotation are used to describe frightening places, events or phenomena.
Examples: “boundless dark Chaos” (ancient Greek myths), “wild cries, monstrous laughter” (Celtic traditions), “filthy idol” (Russian epics). Such epithets serve not only for a vivid description of places and phenomena, but also for the formation of a special perception, the reader’s attitude to what is read.
What is rich in Russian language? Epithets and their role in colloquial and artistic speech
Let's start with a simple example. A short dialogue of two sentences: "Hello son. I'm going home. How are you? What are you doing?" - "Hello, mom. Good. Ate soup." This conversation is a dry exchange of information: mom goes home, the child ate soup. Such communication does not carry any emotions, does not create mood and, one might say, does not give us any information about the feelings and the real state of affairs of the interlocutors.
Another thing is if epithets "interfere" in the process of communication. What does it change? Example: "Hello, my sweet son. I’m going home tired and exhausted like a dog. How are you doing? What are you doing?" - "Hello, dear mom. I had a hot day today, in a good way! I ate soup, it was great." This example answers very well the question of why epithets are so important in modern speech, even if this is a normal everyday conversation. You must admit that from such a conversation it is much easier to understand the mood in which each of the interlocutors is: mother will be glad that her son is fine and pleased that he liked the soup; the son, in turn, will understand that the mother is tired and will warm up dinner at her arrival or will do something else useful. And all this thanks to the epithets!
Epithet in Russian: the role and examples of use in artistic speech
From simple to complex. In fiction, epithets are no less, and perhaps even more important. Not a single literary work will be interesting and will not be able to captivate the reader if there are few epithets in it (with rare exceptions, of course). In addition to the fact that they allow you to make the image of depicted phenomena, objects, epithets brighter and more expressive, perform other roles in literary texts :
- They emphasize some characteristic features and properties of the described object. Examples: "yellow ray", "wild cave", "smooth skull" (Lermontov).
- They explain and clarify the features that distinguish an object (for example, color, size, etc.). Example: "Forest ... lilac, gold, crimson ..." (Bunin).
- They are used as the basis for creating oxymoron through a combination of contrasting words. Examples: "brilliant shadow", "wretched luxury."
- They allow the author to express his attitude to the described phenomenon, give his assessment and convey this perception to readers. Example: “We value the word prophetic, and we honor the Russian word” (Sergeev-Tsensky).
- They help create a lively view of the subject. Example: "... spring, the first ringing ... rumbles in the blue sky" (Tyutchev).
- Create a certain atmosphere, cause the desired emotional state. Example: "... lonely and alien to everything, walking alone along an abandoned high road" (Tolstoy).
- Readers form a definite attitude to the phenomenon, object or hero. Examples: "A peasant-redneck rides, and a peasant sits on a good horse" (Russian epic); "Onegin was, according to many ... / Small scientist, but pedant" (Pushkin).
Thus, the role of epithets in fiction is priceless. It is these expressive words that make the works, whether it is a poem, poem, novel or novel, alive, fascinating, capable of evoking certain emotions, moods, and evaluations. We can safely say that there would be no epithets, the very possibility of the existence of literature as art would be called into question.
Conclusion
In this article we tried to most fully answer the question of what epithets are in literature and colloquial speech, examined various ways of classifying these expressive means, and also talked about the role of epithets in life and work. We hope this helped you expand your understanding of such an important term in literary theory as epithet.