Idioms, winged expressions, proverbs and sayings make up a huge layer in any language, thanks to which speech becomes richer and brighter. Otherwise, they are called phraseological units. What this is and what they are, we will consider in this article.
Definition
The study of the considered vocabulary is engaged in phraseology. Phraseological unit is a stable idiomatic expression in a language, the meaning of which is clear to all its speakers. Synonyms of this concept are the words phrasem, idiom.
Functions
Phraseological unit can perform the functions of different parts of speech. For example, it can be:
- noun (Kazan orphan, a dog in the manger);
- verb (beat the buck, burn life, drank to the green serpent);
- adjective (drunk in the insole);
- adverb (headlong, tirelessly).
Like any linguistic phenomenon, phrases have their own characteristics.
- Reproducibility. This feature shows that the phraseological unit is familiar to most native speakers, and it is not invented every time anew. For example, “beat the buck” means “mess around.”
- Semantic integrity, which means the complete or partial rethinking of the words that make up a phrase. For example, the expression “he ate a dog” means “experienced,” not the fact of a dog eaten by someone.
- Separation implies the presence of two or more words in a phrase that have a different meaning outside it.
- Stability - a sign that shows the possibility or impossibility of changing the composition by reducing, expanding or replacing its constituent words. An unstable phraseological unit can be changed with:
- vocabulary when one word is replaced by another;
- grammar, when an expression undergoes grammatical changes without changing the meaning;
- quantitative when phraseology changes due to the expansion or reduction of components;
- positions when components are swapped.
Classification Overview
Many linguists tried to classify phraseological units, and the approaches were different. Some relied on grammar and structure, others on style, and others on values and themes. Each classification has a right to exist, and below we will consider the most important ones.
- The first classification of phraseological units was proposed by L.P. Smith, in which the latter were grouped according to their topic. For example, “human activity”, “natural phenomena”. The main drawback of this typology is ignoring the linguistic criterion.
- Unlike its predecessor, the linguistic principle was put into the classification developed by V.V. Vinogradov. The types of phraseological units he proposed were divided according to semantic cohesion — unity, combination, and fusion.
- N. M. Shansky proposed, in addition to phraseological units, to single out a separate classification for expressions (sayings, proverbs and winged expressions).
- The classification proposed by A. I. Smirnitsky was based on the structural-grammatical principle.
- The classification of N. N. Amosova was made up of the meaning of phraseological units and an analysis of their context.
- S. G. Gavrin approached the classification in terms of their functional-semantic complexity.
- A.V. Kunin supplemented the classification of V.V. Vinogradov.
Classification of V.V. Vinogradov
In unity, the word (phraseological unit) coincides with its components, that is, from what has been said it is clear what is at stake. For example, pulling the strap - doing a long job.
Splices - the meaning does not coincide with its constituent components. For example, "beat the buck" - messing around. In some splices there are words that have lost their original meaning and are no longer used in modern Russian. For example, baclos are chocks that were used to make wooden spoons.
In combinations, the meaning of phraseological unit consists of components, one of which has a connecting function, in which one of the components of the phraseological unit is combined with some words, but not combined with others. For example, you can say “fear takes”, “sadness takes” in the meaning of “scary” or “sad”, but you can not say that “joy takes” in the meaning of “fun”.
Classification of A. I. Smirnitsky
This classification divided phraseological units into idioms, phrasal verbs and phraseological units proper. Both the first and second were divided into 2 groups, which, in turn, were divided into subgroups:
a) single peaks:
- verb-adverbial (by hook or by crook);
- equivalent to verbs whose semantic core is in the second component (easy and simple to do);
- prepositional-substantive equivalent to adverbs or predicates (brothers in reason);
b) two and multi-vertex:
- attributive-substantive, the equivalent of which is a noun (dark horse, gray cardinal);
- verb-substantive, the equivalent of which is a verb (take a word);
- repetitions are equivalents of an adverb.
- adverbial multi-vertex.
Classification of N. N. Amosova
In the typology of N. N. Amosova, phraseological units are divided into idioms and phrases, the approach to the classification of which is based on an analysis of the context. By analysis is meant a combination of a semantically feasible word with an indicative minimum. Such a context may be constant or variable. In a constant context, the indicative minimum is constant and the only possible for a given meaning of a semantically implemented word. For example, "white lie", "leave in English."
In a variable context, words in the index minimum may change, but the meaning will remain the same. For example, with the word "dark" you can use the words "horse" and "person" - "dark horse", "dark man" in the meaning of "secret, secretive."
Phraseologisms with a constant context are divided into phrases and idioms.
Classification of S. G. Gavrin
S. G. Gavrin classified phraseological units in terms of functional-semantic complexity. Thus, his classification of phraseological units included stable and variable-stable combinations of words. The research of S. G. Gavrin in the field of phraseology was based on the works of V. V. Vinogradov and N. M. Shansky and continued the development of 4 types of phraseological units.
Classification of A. V. Kunin
The classification of phraseological units compiled by A. V. Kunin supplemented the classification of V. V. Vinogradov. It included phraseological units:
- One-vertex of one significant and two or more non-significant lexemes.
- With the structure of a compositional or subordinate phrase.
- With a partially predicative structure.
- With a verb in the infinitive or in the passive voice.
- With the structure of a simple or complex sentence.
From the point of view of semantics, A. V. Kunin divides the above phraseological units into four groups:
- with a component, that is, designating an object, a phenomenon - they are called nominative; this group includes 1, 2, 3, and 5 type of phraseological units, except for complex ones;
- without objective logical meaning expressing emotions - such phrases are called interjective and modal;
- with the structure of the sentence, which are called communicative, - this group includes sayings, proverbs and catchphrases;
- 4th group refers to nominative-communicative.
Sources of phrases in Russian
Phraseological units of the Russian language can be:
The origin of the native Russian is associated with everyday life, dialects and professional activities.
Examples of phraseological units:
- household - a goal like a falcon, hang your nose, take for a living;
- dialect - peak position, smoke rocker;
- professional - chopped nuts (carpenter), pull the treadmill (weaving), play the first violin (musician).
Borrowed phraseological units came to the Russian language from Old Slavonic, ancient mythology and other languages.
Examples of borrowings from:
- Old Slavonic - forbidden fruit, aredovy eyelids, dark water in the oblast;
- ancient mythology - sword of Damocles, Tantalum flour, Pandora's box, apple of discord, sunk into oblivion;
- other languages - blue stocking (English), wide leg (German), not at ease (French).
Their meaning does not always coincide with the meaning of the words included in them and sometimes requires great knowledge, in addition to understanding the meaning of tokens.
Phraseological Expressions
Phraseological expressions and phraseological units of the language are united by the fact that they are stable expressions, and the speaker can easily reproduce them. But in the first components of the expressions can be used independently and as part of other phrases. For example, in the expressions of “love, all ages are submissive,” “seriously and permanently,” “wholesale and retail,” all words can be used separately.
It is worth noting that not all linguists studying phraseological units with a component considered their inclusion in the phraseological dictionary possible.
Winged expressions are expressions borrowed from literature, cinema, theatrical performances and other forms of verbal art. They are often used in modern speech, both orally and in writing. For example, “happy hours are not observed,” “all ages are submissive to love.”
Proverbs and sayings are holistic expressions that have elements of caution and can be applied in many situations. Unlike winged expressions, they do not have an author, since they were created by the people for many centuries and passed from mouth to mouth, and have survived to our time in their primary form. For example, “Chickens are considered in the fall” means that the results of a case can be judged after its completion.
Unlike a proverb, a proverb is a figurative, emotionally colored expression. For example, the proverb “When the cancer on the mountain whistles” means that some work is unlikely to be completed.
Proverbs and sayings - a vivid reflection of the values and spiritual development of the people. Through them it is easy to trace what the people love and approve, and what not. For example, “Without labor, you can’t even take fish out of the pond”, “Man feeds labor, and laziness spoils”, they say the importance of labor.
Development trends
Of all the categories of language, vocabulary is most affected by changes, as it is a direct reflection of the changes taking place in society.
Today, the lexical composition of the Russian language is experiencing a neological boom. Why?
The first reason is social, economic, political and spiritual changes in Russia in the 90s. The second is the activity of the media and the Internet, which led to freedom of speech and a large number of foreign borrowings. Third, the rapid development of technology, contributing to the emergence of new information and words. Such a situation cannot but affect the meaning of words - they either lose their original meaning or acquire another. The boundaries of the literary language are also expanding - today it is open to colloquial, vernacular, slang words and phraseological units. Speaking about the latter, it is worth noting that the peculiarity of modern phraseological units is not the meaning of words, but their combination. For example, “wild market”, “shock therapy”, “neighboring countries”, “cool outfit”, “commercial break”.
Mini test
And now we offer you to check your erudition. What do these phraseological units mean:
- nodding;
- bite the tongue;
- everything in hands burns;
- run headlong;
- wrap around the mustache;
- eyes were wide;
- count the raven;
- spins on the tongue;
- lie with three boxes.
Check the correct answers. Values (in order):
- want to sleep;
- to shut up;
- a person has something easy and beautiful;
- run very fast;
- remember something important;
- a person from a large number of some things cannot choose one;
- sit back;
- a person wants to remember something well-known, but cannot;
- promise or lie.