Products from ceramics - the oldest type of craft from all the skills mastered by man. Even primitive people made for personal use primitive dishes, hunting decoys, and even clay utensils like hodgepots for cooking.
Of course, people did not have any craving for creativity or art in those days, and any craft was considered only as another auxiliary means for survival. However, later man learned to find beauty in any kind of work.
The article tells about the history of porcelain, its types and method of production, as well as the distribution of this material and its path in the artistic work of various peoples.
China
Porcelain works of art are rightfully considered to be the pinnacle of ceramic products, as well as the most difficult group of products in pottery production, since processing porcelain is not an easy task, and only the skill of glassblower can be compared with it in terms of danger and complexity.
It is porcelain as a type of ceramic that is considered the most noble material. Unlike most other materials, it has many subspecies, for each of which there are special processing conditions.
Kinds of Porcelain
They directly depend on the consistency, as well as on the proportion of the ratio of the porcelain mass itself and the glaze at its base. Based on these indicators, three types of this material are distinguished in porcelain:
- Solid. It consists of only two materials: kaolin and feldspar. It is feldspar that porcelain owes its refractoriness and ductility to the structure. Solid material is not used in ceramic production in its pure form. Usually quartz and sand are added to strengthen it. Musical instruments are made from it, as well as souvenir bells, because thanks to the solid semimetallic structure, the material is capable of producing high clear sounds. The first to receive solid porcelain was a German chemist and glassblower Johann Friedrich Betger.
- Soft. It is from this material that most of the works of art known to us are created. Due to its soft structure, the material is easy to process and quickly takes on any given shape, instantly solidifying in the accepted position. Such a structure is due to silicon, saltpeter, soda, and alabaster being in its composition. Soft porcelain was invented at the end of the 16th century in Italy, and was immediately sent to the mainstream of art, giving life to most ceramic luxury items known to us.
- Bone. This material is, in fact, a mixture of the waste of the first two types. It is made quite simply by mixing the waste and adding a small amount of feldspar to them, which leads to the production of brittle material. For a long time they made cheap china and household items from bone china. In the field of art, this material has never been used because of a dirty yellowish color and excessive fragility. Bone China was discovered in 1748 by the Dutch chemist Thomas Fry.
Porcelain production
This is a long process that requires a lot of painstaking preparation. It takes a lot of time to mix the ingredients, weigh the raw materials and form the product, while the result of this work is achieved by almost instant firing in a furnace at high temperature.
When preparing raw materials for mixing in special forms, thorough purification of the components from secondary impurities is performed. The lower the percentage of impurities, the higher the quality of porcelain. The raw materials are carefully sieved on production screens, dried in a hot air stream and mixed with water, mixing with a special device until the consistency of thick jelly.
The resulting mass is mixed for a long time to give it homogeneity and poured into pre-cooked molds that enter the kiln.
After firing, the resulting works will be sanded with a wet cloth, polished, painted and packaged.
Porcelain in the East
Solid porcelain was invented in China at the beginning of the VI century. Chinese porcelain, the history of which dates back nearly one and a half millennia, has long been produced only in the personal factories of the emperor, in an atmosphere of strict secrecy.
Needless to say, ordinary Chinese did not have access to porcelain at that time. In the VII century, its production begins to develop rapidly. For a long time, Chinese chemists have been experimenting with the nature, texture and color of the new material, and by the beginning of the 15th century, Chinese porcelain production had reached its peak. It was the Chinese masters who were the first in the world to master the technology of painting hot surfaces with paints from compounds of cobalt, hematite, chromium, which introduced Chinese porcelain into history as one of the highest quality in the world.
A century later, Portuguese sailors brought the secret of ceramics production to Europe, but at first the new craft did not take root.
In the middle of the 16th century, porcelain began to be mass-produced in Japan. The quality of the Japanese counterpart was not as high as the works from the Middle Kingdom. However, the masters quickly mastered the production technology of various complex forms. The Japanese were also the first to come up with the finest gold sheets to decorate porcelain.
Porcelain in Italy
The history of porcelain in Italy is also entertaining. The fact is that at first all the porcelain products that appeared in Europe were exclusively imported. Since luxury goods were supplied in a rather limited quantity, those rare items that did not fall into the treasures of various monarchs settled in vaults belonging to various abbeys.
At first, the medieval masters of Europe tried to copy the composition of the new material. However, all attempts were unsuccessful. Porcelain either burst almost immediately after casting the product, or did not want to turn into a thick jelly-like consistency.
Those rare examples of experienced European porcelain that have survived to this day are in the Vatican, in the treasury of the Pope.
Great successes were achieved by Italian craftsmen who managed to establish a small production of porcelain at the end of the 15th century. However, it soon became clear that the products they made were not made of porcelain at all, but of very thin polished clay.
Various written sources, as well as records of the craftsmen of those times, do not contain more accurate information about porcelain or about its export to Europe until the very end of the 16th century.
In 1575, the legendary Duke Francesco Medici opens his first porcelain factory in Europe in his villa. Resourceful Italians decided to make it of the highest quality, without wasting time on the production of a trial series of products of medium and low quality. The risk has paid off. The porcelain obtained by the Medici became a unique white material. It included white clay from Vicenza, as well as gray quartz. Glaze at the insistence of the count was also used only white, which gave the finished product a dull whitish shade.
Since the production was quite small, only about fifty artifacts have survived to this day - thin table dishes, large vases, trays, as well as about seven field flasks for drinking water.
All these works of art were carefully painted by the best artists of Italy, depicting floral ornaments and various still lifes on them, which for that time was quite a fashionable trend.
Porcelain in Germany
The history of porcelain in Germany is not so romantic. From Italy, with the assistance of Venetian merchants, the material goes to Germany, where leading manufacturers of ceramic products immediately show interest.
The city of Meissen in West Germany was at that time the leader in the field of pottery. And it was here, under the guidance of Count Ehrenfield von Chirnhaus, experiments began to identify and improve the properties of porcelain, as well as experiments to create new compositions. The count was interested in creating a manufactory that would provide the country with export raw materials and make a tangible contribution to the German economy. Glass blowing experiments have already been successful under the supervision of the Cairnhouse. However, the Count understood that the glass industry had not yet become so popular that it could be relied on.
But it was here that the Kahla brand was born. The history of porcelain has its roots in the history of the legendary chemist Berger, who signed all his works in this way.
In 1704, under the responsibility of Cirnhaus, the legendary twenty-year-old pyrotechnician Berger was released from the royal prison, whose experiments were considered too dangerous not only for the citizens of the country, but also for the royal authorities. After all, Berger was actively involved in the creation of bombs and high-explosive bombs.
Cairnhouse offers Berger work in a full-fledged laboratory in exchange for help and collaboration on the problem of soft porcelain. Six months later, Berger realizes that hard porcelain differs from soft porcelain only in the amount of quartz dust in its composition. Thus began the story of Kahla china.
By the end of the XVIII century, almost all the species known to us were discovered, and mass production of products of various quality was also established. Basically it was a stylishly decorated dishes, various decorative figures, which were readily acquired by wealthy collectors to decorate houses and country villas.
In Russia
The history of Russian porcelain is also full of interesting facts and entertaining details. In our country, its production took root far from immediately, because for many years the country had its own, "folk" material - majolica. Its manufacture by the end of the 18th century in Russia was so large-scale that at international shows and exhibitions the Russian product was in no way inferior to world competitors.
In 1724, the first plant for the production of majolica was founded, where, under the guidance of the enthusiastic merchant A.K. Grebenshchikov, the production of artistic majolica began. It was with her that the history of porcelain in Russia began.
Majolica was distinguished by its subtlety and grace, and painting on the coating was always performed in traditional Russian styles, such as Gzhel, Khokhloma, Palekh. Similar works of art were incredibly appreciated in Italy, France, Germany and Spain.
In addition to majolica, the Grebenshchikov factory produced ordinary clay pottery on an industrial scale, which was painted by Gzhel craftsmen. The Gzhel technique was originally famous for rough, but bright strokes, merging into one image. Hand-painted at that time was not cheap, but even the pottery from the factory dispersed in a matter of days. Enamel cups with floral patterns were popular throughout the middle zone of the Russian Empire, linking the history of the country with the porcelain era.
For a long time, domestic scientists could not determine the composition of porcelain. The history of porcelain in Russia almost even ceased to exist. It is known that during the reign of Peter I a special expedition was sent to Germany, the purpose of which was to find out the composition. However, the expedition failed, failing the mission. Later, one of its leaders, Yuri Kologrivy, will nevertheless be able to obtain porcelain experimentally in his laboratory in St. Petersburg.
In 1724, Grebenshchikov abandoned experiments with porcelain and switched to earthenware, a more accessible and cheaper material to process. In just two years, the merchant manages to achieve industrial production, as well as gain the reputation of one of the highest quality manufacturers of earthenware dishes and other household and art products. Tea sets, which became an indispensable attribute of every self-respecting family of that time, were widely used.
Kuznetsov porcelain, whose history is truly entertaining, owes its appearance to the work of the domestic chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Vinogradov - a friend and associate of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov himself.
January 30, 1746 will go down in history as the day of Russian porcelain. It was on this day that Dmitry Vinogradov managed to get the first experimental staff in his laboratory. The history of porcelain in Russia began when the first bowls from this material were cast at the plant of Pyotr Afanasyevich Kuznetsov.
Porcelain production was continued by the descendant of Peter Afanasevich - Mikhail Sergeyevich Kuznetsov. He became the first Russian monopolist in the production of porcelain and earthenware products. In addition to household items, Kuznetsovskaya manufactory became famous for its incredible beauty of art products and luxury goods.
The decline of Russian porcelain occurred at the end of the 19th century, when instead of a conceptual embodiment of ideas, breeders focus on the complexity of forms, producing absolutely meaningless vases, teapots or services with murky watercolor patterns. From the products, qualitatively traced engravings disappeared, giving way to tasteless landscapes.
In the modern era, the history of porcelain in Russia finally ceases to exist. The manual work of eminent masters is being replaced by standard factory casting with the same, stenciled images of sunsets and sunrises.
History of Soviet Porcelain
After the revolution, when the Soviet government desperately clutched at any possibility of agitation, turning all spheres of art available to it into mass propaganda, Russian porcelain was not forgotten. Moreover, he became one of the main, reliable and long-standing executors of government propaganda orders. The porcelain factory in St. Petersburg was closed for reorganization in 1917, and in 1919 already began production of a new type of product.
In just two years, a team of the best craftsmen was assembled at the plant. Attracted writers and artists, masters of casting, painting and gold ligature.
The first experimental batch consisted of campaign figures of workers and armed sailors with red banners. These ceramic soldiers immediately became the subject of admiration for the boys and created a boom among buyers and collectors. Each of these soldiers had the brand of the factory, and hundreds of people became interested in the history of the stigma of china.
The next batch included household items, decorated with symbols of the new government.
In subsequent years, the production of agitation porcelain only gained momentum. Gradually, the factories began to produce children's toys, kitchen utensils, collection busts of famous revolutionaries, Christmas decorations.
Soviet porcelain is getting closer to the people, releasing at the same time the objects that are necessary for the population and at the same time ideologically correct from the point of view of power.
In the USSR, the history of china is short. It ended in the mid-1980s, when the population ceased to need ideological products. Since all plants were set up to produce only ideological products, the production had to be curtailed, since it was not possible to find experienced graphic designers at that time.
Russian porcelain in our time
Despite the sharp decline in the popularity of porcelain products and almost extinct production, it all too early remained a folk craft and continued to appear on store shelves. Only now it was executed now by a makeshift method. Of course, the quality of such products left much to be desired, but this did not affect demand. The population is accustomed to unpretentious Soviet toys made of cheap porcelain. Therefore, artisanal counterparts were quite popular, especially since many manufacturers were fired from the factories by workers and had a good understanding of the technique of creating works of art from porcelain and faience.
In 1994, a plant named after Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov was reopened in St. Petersburg. In 1995, he released an experimental batch of Christmas toys. The restoration of the plant involved painting masters from all over the country.
The history of Soviet porcelain was continued by descendants who returned to the origins of the appearance of this amazing art on Russian soil. A few years later, the plant began to not only reissue the once cast figures, but also to develop its own design, as well as models of new works of art. Since 1998, the regular manufacturers of new collections of the plant can be envied by the best manufacturers around the world. The quality of Russian products is again becoming a reference, winning first places not only at art exhibitions, but also on the market for such products.
In 2008, the plant receives a grant from Russian President Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin, as well as funds for updating equipment.
Modern artisan porcelain still exists and is a fairly large folk craft. On the territory of Russia there are even whole villages of breeders who create unique works of art in the original Russian techniques of porcelain boiling and its painting.
In the village of Dulevo, Samara Region, a master craftsman Petr Vasilievich Leonov has been working for many years, working in a unique technique of painting with a brushstroke. He paints hot porcelain with his fingers, brushing his rubbing paint into a piece that has not yet cooled down. Despite the apparent rudeness of the movements, the work of Peter Leonov is incredibly appreciated throughout the world.
“The history of cold porcelain has long become obsolete,” the artist believes, explaining to reporters that “in the warmth of porcelain lies his soul, and you cannot be cold with it.”
The revival of the popularity of china
Recently, amid the growing popularity of the art of working with porcelain, almost forgotten in the country, more and more children are interested in this craft. Porcelain and faience painting schools have been opened in many cities of Russia. There, students learn a lot of interesting things. They are not only told about the history of porcelain production, but also taught how to paint material in various techniques.
Modern trends in the revival of crafts are key to the revival of Russian culture and customs, which is an incredibly important part of the social worldview.
The history of porcelain and hallmarks can be interesting not only for adults, but also for children. In 2008, the ABC Publishing House issued a series of educational books on Russian crafts. The series was a huge success and was reprinted more than once. According to the assurances of many critics, it is difficult to find a book that would present material of this kind for children in a more accessible way.
Of course, the publication “History of Porcelain for Children” is just a small part of it, but other crafts are becoming popular among young people, which indicates the revival of traditional Russian art.