No wonder man is called the "crown of creation." People are extremely complicated. In addition to physiological functions, systems and organs, an integral component of any person is his soul, consciousness.
Those processes that occur in his mind and allow you to acquire new skills, knowledge, accumulate life experience, make various discoveries. Spiritual, moral and moral values, the ability to perceive beauty and create it - these are also integral components of human nature.
Although the human psyche and physiology are actually two facets of one whole, the so-called conflicts between them are quite possible. It is precisely the questions connected with the contradictions between the spiritual and the physical that are denoted by the term âpsychophysical problemâ in science.
What it is? Definition
This term refers to all existing or theoretically possible issues related to the relationship between the mental and physiological components of human nature.
According to the accepted definition, the psychophysical problem is the ratio of the spiritual to the material, consciousness and body. In other words, it is a balance between physical and mental processes, their mutual influence and the penetration of one into another.
From the history of this issue
For the first time, people began to think about how the phenomena of the psychic component of human nature relate to physiological processes, even in ancient times. Of course, in those days the term âpsychophysicalâ was not yet in use. The psychophysiological problem is an almost modern expression that arose at the junction of the century before last and the past. In the Middle Ages and in earlier time periods, other concepts were in use: soul, body life, and others.
For the first time, the theory of the division of all things into two main components - spiritual and physical - arose in the XVII century. He outlined this problem and, accordingly, put forward the first theory of the French mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes.
According to his reflections, the psychophysical problem is a violation of the ratio of two substances - bodily and spiritual. The bodily scientist attributed the processes associated with:
- nutrition;
- breathing
- moving in space;
- reproduction.
Of course, other physiological phenomena were also assigned to the category of âbodily substanceâ. Accordingly, all those processes that are related to the manifestation of will, consciousness, and thought processes have departed to the spiritual component.
The essence of the theory of Rene Descartes
The French scientist believed that psychic phenomena are not directly related to physiology, and even more so cannot be its direct consequence. Based on this postulate, Descartes and sought an explanation for the coexistence of these opposite components in human nature.
The scientist used the term "interaction" rather than the "psychophysical problem." In modern psychology, Descartes' theory is considered one of the fundamental and refers to the parallelism section of the coexistence of the components of human nature.
The interaction of the mental and physical components of human nature in it is considered as follows:
- bodily influences the soul, the consequence of which is the awakening of base passions, the desire for carnal pleasures and sensual pleasures in various variations;
- the spiritual makes the body work on itself, tame impulses, develop and improve.
In other words, the first scientific formulation of such a question as the âpsychophysical problemâ in philosophy considered the ratio of the substances that make up human nature to be more like a continuous struggle, rather than a mutual complement of one another.
Who else dealt with this issue?
The teachings of Descartes found a response among scientists, and, of course, he had his own adherents and followers. The most significant contribution to the development of this issue was made by:
- Thomas Hobbes.
- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.
- Benedict Spinoza.
Each of these scientists did not just study or develop this philosophical question. They introduced into the concept of âpsychophysical problemâ something of their own, far from always and not in all respects corresponding to the direction outlined by Descartes.
About Thomas Hobbes Theory
Thomas Hobbes, an Englishman, philosopher and materialist, believed that in reality only the physical component of human nature is important, in other words, its physical side. The English scientist did not deny the existence of a spiritual particle in man, but claimed that it was only a continuation of the physiological processes taking place in the body.
Based on the fact that consciousness, thinking, and other processes attributable to the spiritual come from the body and are their derivatives, and do not arise independently, the scientist came to the conclusion that they can be comprehended by observing the physiology of human nature.
The English scientist explained the essence of the theory as follows: since thinking is only a consequence of physical processes, it is subjective, in contrast to the body component. Physiological phenomena, bodily needs, processes occurring in the body, on the contrary, are objective. Accordingly, by studying them, one can comprehend and predict the development of subjective substances that are part of human nature.
On the theory of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
One of the most famous philosophers, logicians and mathematicians of Saxony was also not in all solidarity with Rene Descartes. Also Leibniz did not support the teachings of the English philosopher Hobbes.
According to Saxonâs theory, the spiritual and physical principles have the same meaning, and they are equal in importance in human nature. Leibniz believed that the physical and spiritual components follow their own laws of development, harmoniously complementing one another.
According to the scientist, the spiritual component of a person manifests itself under the influence of "final" reasons, for example, the need to achieve any goal. The bodily component is subject to objective, real reasons. These components do not directly affect one another, that is, a personâs desire to eat, drink or the need for breathing does not affect his spirituality, and vice versa. Nevertheless, both aspects of human nature are in a state of harmony, since they are parts of a single whole.
The leadership of Leibniz did not take away the material, but the spiritual component. That is, the scientist believed that in some cases the body principle follows spiritual needs, and not vice versa.
About the theory of Benedict Spinoza
The psychophysical problem by these scientists was considered in the framework of the view of monism. In other words, Spinoza argued that in human nature there are no separate components. Human nature is one, although it is characterized by various manifestations, attributes, or qualities.
In other words, the spirit and body, according to the theory of this scientist, are just attributes of a single human nature. Accordingly, the greater the personâs life activity, the more perfect his nature becomes - both spiritual and physical.
The essence of this scientistâs theory can be expressed by the saying that in a healthy body the same strong and strong spirit is invariably present. Spinoza believed that the higher the physical culture of a person, the more complex and organized his spirituality, thinking, consciousness.
What do modern scientists think?
Nowadays, the psychophysical problem is briefly reduced to a consideration of interaction and opposition:
- soul and body;
- mentality and sensuality.
Modern psychologists adhere to the three main theoretical pillars that took shape in the century before last. The essence of these postulates is as follows:
- estrangement from physicality;
- separation of emotionality and mind;
- representation of the body as a mechanism, machine.
Thus, modern scientists see the solution to the psychophysical problem in the same way as their predecessors who worked in the century before last, namely, in gaining complete control of the mind over the mind and body.
In the century before last, the vast majority of scientists approached the solution of issues related to the spiritual and physical components of human nature from the perspective of reductionism. The same approach is largely relevant today.
What does the term reductionism mean?
What is "reductionism"? This is a set of techniques and principles, which are based on an explanation of the essence of any complex processes using patterns that characterize simple phenomena.
For example, each seemingly complex sociological process can be broken down into components and explained with the help of laws that are characteristic of economic, biological or other phenomena. In other words, this method is based on the principle of reducing the complex to the simple or the higher to the lower.
About reductionism in psychophysical issues in the last century
Similar solutions to the psychophysical problem arose the year before last thanks to the work of such scientists:
- Ludwig Buchner.
- Karl Vogt.
- Jacob Moleshott.
All of them were materialists. The combination of ideas and thoughts of these scientists in the scientific world has received the name "physiological reductionism." The essence of this direction was that the human brain, as an organ, allocates thought in the process of its functioning. This happens similarly to how bile is secreted in the liver or juice in the stomach. Thus, scientists believed that in order to explain mental phenomena, it is necessary to closely study the human brain as an organ.
The theory became very widespread, reaching its peak in the 20s of the past century. At the beginning of the last century, it was customary to explain even extremely complex and confusing mental states by combinations of simple reflexes. As an example, it is quite possible to consider the famous Pavlovâs dog. I.P. Pavlov himself was also a supporter and follower of the ideas of physiological reductionism. In Russia, this method was relevant for the consideration of psychophysical problems until the middle of the last century.
In psychophysical issues, reductionism was picked up and adopted by scientists who adhere to the direction of behaviorism. Its essence lies in the denial of the existence of a spiritual component, and a person is regarded as an organism "responding to stimuli."
About reductionism in psychophysical issues today
In the middle of the last century, the technique of reductionism has entered a state of deep crisis. Due to the fact that scientists adhering to this direction actually denied the likelihood of complex mental processes occurring that are directly dependent on the physiology of the brain, reductionism as a technique turned out to be untenable.
However, in the XXI century this psychological direction is undergoing rebirth. Of course, the methodology has undergone some changes and no longer contains categorical statements. However, its essence remains the same: an explanation of the complex through the knowledge of the simple.
The method itself is widely used in sociology and other sciences. Reductionism in sociology is a way of looking at a person through the prism of social relations. Cybernetic reductionism is a way of considering psychophysical processes as a consequence of the analysis and processing of information. That is, the nature of man in this theory seems to be similar to a computer device.
How are psychophysical issues resolved in practice?
In the modern world, the most acute problem is the psychophysical development of children. This concept includes:
- physical development, state of the body;
- the nuances of the mental formation of personality.
The task of parents and teachers is to maintain these parameters in a stable balance, harmony. Deviations or a violation in the development of one of them inevitably entails problems in the other. That is, an undeveloped bodily child will also experience difficulties in mental activity - it will become tired, poorly memorize information, show an inability to master educational material.
The psychophysical state of children is assessed, in accordance with the standards, by various tests, the complexity of which depends on what age group they are intended for. The classification of various deviations in psychophysical development is very extensive. For example, oligophrenia as well as hearing loss or visual acuity fall under this concept.
When identifying a psychophysical problem in a child, it is corrected or solved in accordance with its complexity. For example, special developmental or educational methods are used. Similar problems that arise in adults, as a rule, are dealt with by psychologists.