Ethnopsychology is a developing science that studies the interconnections between culture and the human psyche. This industry is in the process of formation, and therefore its exact definition is not yet available. In the article we learn about how this scientific direction developed, which is the subject and method of its study.
About science
Most experts studying modern ethnopsychology do not consider it an independent discipline. This scientific branch borders on two fundamental areas - psychology and culture. At the same time, ethnopsychology is studying the problems of more than two areas. It is no accident that scientists use different terms to denote this discipline, which is largely due to the content in ethnopsychology of topics and research methods of psychology, sociology, cultural studies, history, anthropology. Translated from Greek, ethnos means “people”, psyche is “soul”, and logos is a word, knowledge, doctrine.
Ethnopsychology is a scientific field in which are investigated:
- national characteristics of emotional-volitional and mental cognitive processes, reactions characteristic of representatives of certain nationalities;
- status and personality traits of representatives of various ethnic minorities;
- the uniqueness of phenomena and processes in the socio-psychological sphere of individual nations and peoples;
- issues of national identity, ethno-historical values ​​and orientation;
- cultural characteristics of individual ethnic groups.
Speaking of ethnopsychology as a complex scientific study, during which ethnic, cultural, psychological characteristics of people and entire nations are examined, it is not difficult to distinguish its object. They are whole ethnic groups, nations, peoples, ethnic and national minorities. The subject of ethnopsychology is the self-awareness of people belonging to a certain socio-ethnic community, their understanding of their own interests and understanding of the true position of the nation in the system of social relations, the specifics of interactions with other ethnic groups.
Discipline purpose
Ethnopsychology as a science has specific goals and objectives. First of all, this scientific direction helps to conduct a comprehensive analysis and summarize information about the influencing factors and sources of the formation of specific nationalities, create psychological portraits of representatives of various ethnic communities and identify on their basis the socio-political, economic, historical and cultural prerequisites for further development. In addition, the subject of ethnopsychology is the specificity of the motivational component of the psyche of people belonging to a particular nation, which allows us to study in detail such qualities as, for example, efficiency, initiative, degree of diligence, etc., which determine important indicators of productive activity and features of the behavioral line.
Ethnopsychology is a science in which studies of differentiated indicators of mental activity of people belonging to a particular nationality are conducted. The works of scientists in this field allow us to identify the degree of adherence to logic, the speed of thinking processes and the depth of abstraction, perception, completeness and efficiency of associations, imagination, concentration and stability of attention. Thanks to ethnopsychology, we can conclude about the characteristics of the psychoemotional background, the dynamics of the manifestation of feelings of representatives of a certain nationality, their emotional behavior.
One of the tasks of ethnopsychology is to identify problems in the communicative environment that arise due to differences in the national mental stock of people and forms of interaction. Based on the results of research, a conclusion is drawn on the degree of impact of communication and relationships on the nature of the ongoing socio-psychological processes in groups, their hierarchical structure, traditions, and norms of behavior. In addition, ethnopsychology creates the necessary ground for predicting various social processes in individual regions of the country or in other states.
Scientific research methods
Studying the mentality of people of a particular nation or nationality, scientists use various scientific tools. The most common method of ethnopsychology is observation. It is used in vivo. The method of conscious vision should be focused and applied systematically. This tool will be effective only if the observer does not intervene, whose task is to study the external manifestations of the psyche of people belonging to specific ethnic groups. The disadvantage of this method is the subjectivity of the expert opinion. The method of covert observation using audio or video devices is recognized as very effective in ethnopsychology.
The second research method is experiment. All ascertaining techniques belong to it. The experiment is used as a tool for active research. If the observation method involves the non-interference of the researcher, then in this case the experimenter must organize the whole process himself and take care to create the necessary conditions for the experiment. As a rule, studies are carried out with representatives of different ethnic groups, but under the same conditions. An experiment can be laboratory and natural (the second option is more common).
The method of testing and questionnaires in ethnopsychology allows us to determine the personality traits of the subject or to draw a conclusion about the characteristics of a national character, hierarchy of motives, temperament. The disadvantage of questionnaires is often the unreliability of their results. Compared to this research method, the survey method does not imply clarification of the respondent’s personality, which allows to obtain a higher percentage of truthful information. In addition, an oral survey is much faster than a written test or questionnaire.
How Ethnopsychology Developed Abroad
The first attempts to describe the character of not just an individual, but of a whole group of people, were made in ancient times. Indians, Greeks, Romans tried to create an ethnopsychological portrait of an entire nation. From those times to the present day, information has come about the works of Xenophon, Socrates, Plato, traveling around the world and describing the characters and customs of peoples, differences in lifestyles, attitudes, traditions, and customs. Long before the new era, scientists could clearly see the difference in cultures, the outward appearance of ethnic groups, and some of them took the first steps to determine the nature of these differences.
One of the first in the history of the development of ethnopsychology was Hippocrates. The philosopher believed that the differences in people in the physical and mental plan are related to the geographical position and climatic conditions. His attempts to describe the mental characteristics of individual nationalities laid the foundation for the formation of ethnic psychology.
The study of peoples became the subject of scientific work in the second half of the 18th century. A deep analysis of the problems of discipline was carried out by the French enlightenment. For the first time, such basic concepts of ethnopsychology as the “general spirit” and “the spirit of the people” were introduced. In these terms, features of a national character were laid, the relationship of the form of thinking of the people, their spiritual warehouse and lifestyle. In the same period, German philosophers (Kant, Fichte, Herder, Hegel, Hume) penetrated the ideas of the unity of the nation. Scientists put forward several promising theses, worked to identify the causes of differences in customs, mores and behavioral lines of representatives of groups of different regions.
On the basis of a number of fundamental sciences, ethnopsychology continued its formation as an independent direction. It traced the achievements of that time in psychology, cultural studies, anthropology, and history. Officially, the Germans M. Latsarus and G. Steintal are considered the founders of the ethno-psychological direction. From 1859-1860 they published a journal devoted to the issues of the psychology of peoples and linguistics. Scientists sought to draw the attention of society to differences in facial features of representatives of different nations, their psychological portraits. Steintal found the explanation of this phenomenon in the concept of the national spirit, which he interpreted as the psychological similarity of individuals with identical self-consciousness and ethnicity.
In the process of developing this scientific field, German scientists sought to understand the psychological essence of the nation. Ethnopsychology of peoples, in their understanding, was a way of discovering the laws and internal activities of peoples in everyday life, art, culture and science. Thus, Lazarus and Steinthal were able to initiate ethnic psychology as a form of independent discipline with its own subject, research methods and structure.
The role of Russian scientists in the development of science
The development of German researchers gained wide popularity in Russia, where by that time attempts had been made to systematize ethnopsychological elements. In our country, this scientific direction is rooted in the activities of the geographical community, whose members actively worked in the field. They called it psychic ethnography. For example, N. I. Nadezhdin, proposing to use this term, was sure that this direction implies the study of the spiritual component of human nature, his intellectual abilities, morality, morality, and willpower.
The idea put forward by Nadezhdin was developed by N. Ya. Danilevsky. In his book “Russia and Europe”, the author divided the existing civilizations according to three criteria: mental, aesthetic and moral. Similarly, V. I. Soloviev approached the definition of the subtleties of mentality. He studied the value orientations of local residents, comparing them with the ideals of representatives of other ethnic communities. Briefly about ethnopsychology, which Soloviev adhered to: it is a confirmation of the version that Russian people have a moral and religious ideal.
A.A. Potebnya began to work in a fundamentally different direction in ethnic psychology. As a philologist by education, he was engaged in the study of the psychological nature of the language. A similar other point of view was expressed by V. M. Bekhterev. Both Russian scientists believed that another science, collective reflexology, should deal with the psychology of peoples. This discipline would be called upon to determine public moods, the reasons for resonant social actions, to unravel the meaning of folk art, myths, and rituals that came from antiquity. In addition, it was Bekhterev who was one of the first in his works to address the topic of national symbolism.
In the development of ethnopsychology of Russia, important changes occurred in the first half of the last century. Domestic science was in sight of the cultural-historical school. Outstanding scholars who were interested in the formation of the ethnopsychology of peoples are considered L.S. Vygotsky, D. Likhachev, V. Mavrodin. Each of them held different positions regarding the concept of ethnic psychology.
For example, Vygotsky disclosed this scientific field as “the psychology of primitive peoples”, paying attention to a comparative analysis of the mental activity of a person as a primitive creature and a culturally formed personality. Vygotsky also studied the behavior of children born in the families of representatives of different nationalities. These materials were published only after several decades. By the way, as a result of massive Stalinist repressions against scientists, the development of ethnic psychology was interrupted for almost 40 years. Again, ethno-psychological issues were returned only in the post-war period. D. Likhachev and V. Mavrodin began to pay attention to this direction. Their work was dedicated to the ideas of national consciousness.
At the end of the last century, the number of theoretical and experimental works in the field of ethno-psychological research has increased dramatically. According to researchers, interest in this science continues to grow in connection with the difficult political situation, emerging local ethnic conflicts, the rise of people's self-awareness.
Today, the ethnopsychology of peoples is studied at the faculties of psychology. Students study relevant special courses, get acquainted with new textbooks and study guides, scientific articles in periodicals, peer-reviewed by the Higher Attestation Commission. The relevance of ethnopsychology is also evidenced by the annual specialized conferences held, as a result of which monographs and collections of scientific works of participants are issued.
Discipline structure, main subsections
Today's experimental research on ethnopsychology is carried out in three main areas:
- The formation and modification of ethnic identity. This industry includes issues related to the study of forms and mechanisms of perception of representatives of other nationalities, methods for predicting, preventing and resolving conflicts at the ethnic level. A lot of scholars' works are devoted to the problems of adapting people to a new cultural environment. Among them G.U. Soldatova, N.M. Lebedeva, T.G. Stefanenko.
- Ethnopsychology, studying the interaction of culture and the human psyche. This direction is characterized by the construction of various theoretical concepts using psychological methods in order to determine the characteristics of the formation of mentality among representatives of ethnic groups (S. A. Taglin, V. N. Pavlenko).
- The specifics of verbal and non-verbal behavior in a sociocultural environment. The subject of ethnopsychology in this case is the ethnopsycholinguistic features of the interaction of people of different nationalities and their perception of the cultural products of other peoples.
In the near future, it is planned to develop such branches of ethnic psychology as:
- Ethnopedagogy is a discipline systematizing ethnic traditional ideas about the upbringing and education of children;
- ethnoconflictology - an educational and methodological system that allows you to understand the essence of conflict situations and make effective decisions to prevent them;
- ethnopsychiatry - a branch of specific knowledge about mental disorders, which representatives of certain nationalities are more inclined to;
- Ethnopsycholinguistics is a complex of knowledge about the features of language and the development of speech.
The term "culture" in ethnopsychology
In textbooks on ethnopsychology, one of the paramount components is “culture”. The American psychologist Harry Triandis believed that it has two levels. The first is an objective culture, which includes elementary objects, tools, clothing, cooking, things, language, names, etc. The second level is a subjective culture that implies relationships, values, and beliefs of the population. In the role of ethnopsychology, according to Triandis, it was precisely the subjective. The American considered it a generalizing element for carriers, regardless of their ideology, prejudice, moral values.
The Dutch sociologist Geert Hofstede in 1980 studied more than 50 countries of the world. According to the results of the work he managed to identify several fundamental cultural criteria:
- Distance from power is the degree to which members of society admit an uneven distribution of power. For example, in Arab countries, Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Russia there is a culture with a high distance, and in Australia, Denmark, Germany, the USA - with a low distance, which means building equal relations based on respect for members of society.
- Individualism is the desire to realize one’s self, to protect personal interests, the absence of obligations to act together (typical of the USA) or the presence of group common goals, the recognition of the collective as a whole (typical of collectivist culture in Latin America).
- Masculinity - assertiveness, rivalry, determination, willingness to achieve results at any cost. Countries with a high rate are “male type” (Philippines, Austria, Mexico, Japan, Italy), and countries with low masculinity (Sweden, Norway, Denmark) are “female”.
- Rejection of uncertainty - takes into account the ability to adequately respond to unfamiliar situations, to avoid the avoidance of unclear situations, intolerant attitude towards people with a different life position.
- Strategic thinking - the ability to make strategic long-term decisions, to predict further developments.
Study Guide T. Stefanenko
Among the books on ethnopsychology that are used in the educational process of domestic universities, it is worth noting a course on ethnopsychology T. Stefanenko. The manual outlines the main thematic sections of this discipline. Stefanenko’s book “Ethnopsychology” is a revised and supplemented systematic course published by the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov in 1998. Then the manual was published in a limited edition.
The author of the scientific and methodological complex is the leading Russian psychologist Tatyana Gavrilovna Stefanenko. She made an attempt to integrate various ethnopsychological approaches that exist in various sciences, including psychology, cultural studies, anthropology. In the textbook on ethnopsychology, the author outlines various development paths, familiar and innovative ways of studying personality, communication, and regulation of social behavior in the context of culture. In addition, Stefanenko was able to analyze in detail the aspects of national identity, relations between different ethnic groups and adaptation in a foreign cultural environment.
"Ethnopsychology" Stefanenko is designed for students of the specialties "Psychology", "History", "Political Science". Through his work, the author summarized and summarized the results of an ethnopsychological analysis of fundamental research by G. Lebon, A. Fullier, V. Wundt, G. Tarde and other representatives of ethnic psychology.
The peoples of Russia
While studying the national psychological characteristics of residents of different regions, most scholars aim to build a competent strategy of interethnic relations. For clarity, it would be more expedient to combine them into several groups:
- representatives of Slavic nationalities: Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians;
- Turkic and Altai nationalities: Tatars, Altai, Bashkirs, Khakass, Kumyks, Chuvashs, Tuvans, Nogais;
- representatives of the Finno-Ugric group: Mordovians, Mari, Mordovians, Komi and Permian Komi, Finns, Khanty, Mansi, Karelians, Sami, Vepsians;
- Mongolian group: Kalmyks and Buryats;
- Tungus-Manchu peoples: Nenets, Itelmens, Nanai, Evenki, Evens, Ulchi, Chukchi, Eskimos, Udgeys, Orochi;
- representatives of the North Caucasus: Circassians, Karachais, Adyghe, Ossetians, Ingush, Kabardins, Chechens, Lezghins, Dargins, Kumyks, Laks, etc.
National psychological characteristics of the Slavs
Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians are close to each other in genotype, culture, language, have a lot in common in the process of historical development. Thanks to a variety of sources reflecting the lifestyle and life of representatives of these nationalities, scientists have the opportunity to summarize the results and create an approximate portrait of the average Slav:
- has a high degree of understanding of reality;
- has a decent level of general education necessary for independent living and working life;
- makes informed decisions, carefully considers actions, adequately responds to difficulties and life difficulties;
- sociable, friendly, but not intrusive;
- ready at any time to come to the rescue and support other people;
- tolerant and friendly to representatives of other nationalities.
Humanity and tolerance are the most important features inherent in Russian people. Despite all the hardships and trials that the Russian people had to face, he does not lose mercy and compassion for other people. Domestic philosophers, psychologists, and writers have repeatedly spoken about the high civic solidarity, courage, courage, and unpretentiousness of the Slavs.
The writer F. M. Dostoevsky, characterizing the Russian man, considered kindness and hard work to be one of his most distinctive socio-psychological qualities. Ukrainians are known for their diligence and high professional responsibility, Belarusians are known for their craftsmanship and craving for craftsmanship. In every Slavic family, parents have long raised their children in the world, taught them to live in friendship, instill a love of work, respect for people. In Russia, parasitism and cheating were and remain a cause for condemnation.
Ethnic minorities
Among scientists engaged in the study of ethnopsychology of minorities living in the vast expanses of Siberia and the Far East, it is worth noting G. A. Sidorov. He is the author of Ethnopsychology of the Peoples of the Former Tartaria.
The book was written in order to explain to the reader, what is the difference between the individual and collective consciousness of various ethnic groups. None of the peoples of Siberia, including culturally related ones, thought about why in certain situations their people act in a concrete way. It is unlikely, for example, Evenks and Evens to analyze their behavior and attitude towards neighboring peoples, or to think about the reasons for their extraordinary resilience in any life troubles and complete fearlessness to the tribes in whose territory they had to settle. So Sidorov in the "Ethnopsychology of the peoples of the former Tartaria" finds the answer: all these qualities the Tungus received from the ancestors who built the Kingdom of Bohai in the Far East in the XI century, and in the XII - the Golden Empire of the Jurchen. According to the author, the Tungus ethnos, which spread over vast Siberian territories, has its roots in the history of Manchuria.
Similar can be said about Ob Ugrians. Their ancestors led a nomadic lifestyle, moving in the Tibetan open spaces. It was from northern Tibet, along with the Scythians, that they settled in the Urals. The nomadism of their ancestors with their characteristic way of life and militancy was transmitted to modern taiga descendants - Mansi and Khanty.
According to Sidorov, the Yakut ethnic group also descended from several nomadic nationalities. Their ancestors are the Kyrgyz, Tuvan Chiks, Kurykans and Russian Chaldons. It is not surprising that the psychology of the Yakuts is peculiar: on the one hand, this people is somewhat similar to the Slavs, and on the other, they are typical steppe nomads who settled by will of fate in the taiga.