Phraseological combinations: examples

Phraseological turns are a scourge of everyone who studies a foreign language, because, having encountered them, a person often cannot understand what is at stake. Often, to understand the meaning of a statement, you have to use a dictionary of phraseological combinations, which is far from always at hand. However, there is a solution - you can develop the ability to recognize phraseological units, then it will be easier to understand their meaning. True, for this you need to know what types of them are and how they differ. Particular attention in this matter should be paid to phraseological combinations, since they (due to the different methods of their classification) create the most problems. So, what is it, what are their distinguishing features and in what dictionaries can you find clues?

Phraseology and the subject of its study

The science of phraseology, which specializes in the study of a variety of stable combinations, is relatively young. In Russian linguistics, it began to stand out as a separate section only in the 18th century, and even then at the end of this century, thanks to Mikhail Lomonosov.

Its most famous researchers are linguists Victor Vinogradov and Nikolai Shansky, and in English - A. Mackay, W. Weinreich and L.P. Smith. By the way, it is worth noting that English-speaking linguists, unlike Slavic specialists, pay much less attention to phraseological units, and their supply in this language is inferior to Russian, Ukrainian or even Polish.

The main subject on the study of which this discipline focuses is phraseological unit or phraseological unit. What is it? This is a combination of several words, which is stable in structure and composition (not compiled anew each time, but used in a ready-made form). For this reason, in parsing, phraseological unit, regardless of its type and length of its constituent words, always appears as a single member of a sentence.

Phraseological circulation in each language is a unique thing related to its history and culture. It cannot be fully translated without losing its meaning. Therefore, when translating most often, phraseological units that are similar in meaning and exist in another language are selected.

For example, the famous English phraseological combination: "Keep your fingers on the pulse", which literally means "keep your fingers on the pulse", but it makes sense to "keep abreast of events." However, since there is no one hundred percent analogue in Russian, it is replaced by a very similar one: "Keep your finger on the pulse."

Sometimes, due to the close proximity of countries, similar phraseological phrases arise in their languages, and then there are no problems with translation. So, the Russian expression “beat the buck” (lounging) has its own twin brother in the Ukrainian language - “everyday life baydyk”.

Often, such expressions come simultaneously in several languages ​​due to some important event, for example, such as Christianization. Despite belonging to different Christian denominations, the phraseology “alpha and omega” taken from the Bible and meaning “from beginning to end” (completely, thoroughly) is widespread in Ukrainian, French, Spanish, German, Slovak, Russian and Polish.

Types of phraseological turns

On the classification of phraseological units, linguists have not yet come to the same opinion. Some additionally refer to them proverbs (“You cannot stay without the sun, you cannot live without a sweetheart”), sayings (“God will not betray — the pig will not eat”) and language cliches (“hot support”, “working environment”). But while they are in the minority.

At the moment, the classification of linguist Viktor Vinogradov, who distributed all stable phrases into three key categories, is most popular in East Slavic languages:

• Phraseological adhesions.
• Phraseological unity.
• Phraseological combinations.

Many linguists correlate merging and unity with the term “idiom” (by the way, this word is cognate with the noun “idiot”) which is actually a synonym for the noun “phraseologism”. This is due to the fact that sometimes it is very difficult to draw a line between them. This name is worth remembering, because in English phraseological mergers, unity, combinations are translated precisely with its help - idioms.

Question about phraseological expressions

Vinogradov ’s colleague Nikolai Shansky insisted on the existence of a fourth kind - expressions. In fact, he divided the phraseological combinations of Vinogradov into two categories: combinations and expressions proper.

Although Shansky's classification leads to confusion in the practical distribution of stable phrases, it allows a deeper look at this linguistic phenomenon.

What is the difference between phraseological mergers, phraseological unity, phraseological combinations

First of all, it is worthwhile to understand that these stable units were divided into these types according to the level of lexical independence of their components.

Turnovers, which are absolutely inseparable, the meaning of which is not connected with the meaning of their components, were called phraseological mergers. For example: “sharpen the baldness” (lead a silly conversation), to wear one's heart on one's sleeve (to be frank, literally means “wear a heart on the sleeve”). By the way, figurativeness is characteristic of fusion, most often they arise from folk speech, especially outdated expressions or from ancient books.

Phraseological unity is a more independent species, in relation to its components. Unlike mergers, their semantics are determined by the meaning of their components. For this reason, puns are included here. For example: “young and old” (a person doing something good, despite their not impressive external data) or Ukrainian phraseology: “just like that” (the guilty received a punishment corresponding to his own misconduct). By the way, both examples illustrate a unique feature of unity: rhymed harmonies. Perhaps that is why Victor Vinogradov ranked them with sayings and proverbs, although their affiliation with phraseological units is still disputed by many linguists.

The third type: free phraseological combinations of words. They are quite noticeably different from the two above. The fact is that the value of their components directly affects the meaning of the entire turnover. For example: "hard drinking", "raise the question."

Phraseological combinations in Russian (as well as in Ukrainian and English) have a special property: their components can be replaced by synonyms without losing their meaning: “hurt honor” - “hurt pride”, “raspberry tinkle” - “melodic tinkle”. An example from the language of proud British is the idiom to show one's teeth (show teeth), which can be adapted for any person: to show my (your, his, her, our) teeth.

Phraseological expressions and combinations: distinctive features

The classification of Victor Vinogradov, in which only one analytical form (phraseological combinations) was distinguished by its composition, was gradually supplemented by Nikolai Shansky. To distinguish between idioms and combinations was quite simple (due to their differences in structure). But the new unit of Shansky - the expression (“to be afraid of wolves - do not go to the forest”) was more difficult to distinguish from combinations.

But, if you delve into the question, you can notice a clear difference, which is based on the meaning of phraseological combinations. So, expressions consist of absolutely free words, fully possessing independent semantics (“not all gold is glittering”). However, they differ from ordinary phrases and sentences in that they are stable expressions that are not compiled in a new way, but are used in finished form as a template: "horseradish is not sweeter" (Ukrainian version of "horseradish is not malted").

Phraseological combinations (“give a head for clipping” - “give a hand for clipping”) always include several words with unmotivated meaning, while all components of expressions are absolutely semantically independent (“Man - it sounds proud”). By the way, this feature of them makes some linguists doubt the belonging of expressions to phraseological turns.

What combination of words is not a phraseological phrase

Phraseologisms, from a lexical point of view, are a unique phenomenon: on the one hand, they have all the signs of phrases, but are closer in terms of properties to words. Knowing these features, one can easily learn to distinguish stable phraseological combinations, unity, fusion or expression from ordinary phrases.

• Phraseologisms, as well as phrases, consist of several related lexemes, but most often their meaning is unable to go beyond the sum of the values ​​of their components. For example: “lose your head” (stop thinking sane) and “lose your wallet”. The words that make up phraseologism are most often used in a figurative sense.
• When used in oral and written speech, the composition of phrases is formed anew each time. But unity and fusion are constantly reproduced in finished form (which makes them similar to speech cliches). The phraseological combination of words and phraseological expression in this matter is sometimes confusing. For example: “hang your head” (grieve), although it is phraseological unit, but each of its components is able to freely appear in ordinary phrases: “hang a frock coat” and “lower your head”.
• Phraseological circulation (due to the integrity of the meaning of its components) in most cases can be safely replaced with a synonymous word, which cannot be done with a phrase. For example: the expression “minister of Melpomene” can easily be changed to the simple word “artist” or “actor”.
• Phraseologisms never act as names. For example, the hydronym "Dead Sea" and phraseological combinations "dead season" (unpopular season), "lie dead weight" (lie unused load).

Classification of phraseological units by origin

Considering the origin of phraseological combinations, expressions, unity and mergers, they can be divided into several groups.

• The combinations that came from the folk speech: “stand on your feet”, “without a king in the head” (stupid), “a week without a year” (very short time).
• Professional cliches that gradually turned into idioms: “black and white,” “pouring water into a mill,” “at space speed.”
• The cult statements of famous historical figures or literary characters, movie characters: “The main thing is for the costume to sit” (“Sorcerers”), “Careful guys,” (M. Zhvanetsky), I have a dream (Martin Luther King).
• Persistent phraseological combinations borrowed from other languages, sometimes without translation. For example: o tempora, o mores (about times, about morals), carpe diem (seize the moment), tempus vulnera sanat (time heals wounds).
  
• Quotes from the Bible: “throw beads” (tell / show something to ungrateful listeners / viewers), “wait until the second coming” (wait for something long and probably pointless), “prodigal son”, “heavenly manna”.
• Statements from ancient literature: “apple of discord” (controversial subject), “gifts of Danians” (evil done under the guise of good), “gaze of Medusa” (something that makes you freeze in place like a stone).
  

Other classifications: version of Peter Dudik

• In addition to Vinogradov and Shansky, other linguists tried to separate phraseological units, guided by their own principles. So, the linguist Dudik identified not four, but five whole types of phraseological units:
• Semantically inseparable idioms: “to be on a short leg” (to get to know someone close).
• Phraseological unity with a looser semantics of the constituent elements: “soap the neck” (punish someone).
• Phraseological expressions, completely consisting of independent words, to the total meaning of which it is impossible to choose a synonym. To them, Dudik mainly refers to sayings and proverbs: "A goose is not a pig, comrade."
• Phraseological combinations - phrases based on a metaphorical meaning: "blue blood", "falcon eye".
• Phraseological collocations. Characterized by the lack of metaphor and syntactic unity of the components: "big swell."

Classification of Igor Melchuk

Apart from all of the above is the classification of phraseological units of Melchuk. According to it, significantly more species are distinguished, which are divided into four categories.

• Degree: full, half-phrasem, quasi-phrasem.
• The role of pragmatic factors in the process of forming phraseological units: semantic and pragmatics.
• Which language unit belongs to: lexeme, phrase, syntactic phrase.
• A component of a linguistic sign that has undergone phraseologization: the syntax of the sign, the signifier and the signified.

Classification of Boris Larin

This linguist distributed stable combinations of words by stages of their evolution, from ordinary phrases to phraseological units:

• Variable phrases (analogue of combinations and phraseological expressions): "velvet season".
• Those who partially lost their primary meaning, but were able to find metaphorical and stereotypical: "keep a stone in the bosom."
• Idioms that are completely devoid of the semantic independence of their components, as well as having lost their connection with their original lexical meaning and grammatical role (analogue of phraseological mergers and unity): "out of the blue" (bad).

Common phraseological combinations

The following are some fairly well-known persistent phrases.

• "Be at ease" (feel uncomfortable).
• "Dull eyes" (be embarrassed).
• “Defeat” (defeat someone).
• “A sensitive issue” (a problem requiring careful consideration).
  

Although the classification of Vinogradov and Shansky is not applied to the idioms of the English language, it is possible to choose stable phrases that can be classified as phraseological combinations.
Examples:

• Bosom friend - bosom buddy (bosom friend - bosom buddy).
• A Sisyfean labor.
• A pitched battle - a fierce battle (fierce battle - a fierce battle).

Phraseological Dictionaries

The presence of a large number of classifications of phraseological units is due to the fact that none of them gives a 100% guarantee of the absence of error. Therefore, it is still worth knowing in which dictionaries you can find a hint if you cannot accurately determine the type of phraseology. All dictionaries of this type are divided into monolingual and multilingual. Below are the most famous books of this kind, in which you can find examples of stable expressions, the most common in the Russian language.

• Monolingual: “Training phraseological dictionary” by E. Bystrova; “The burning verb is a dictionary of folk phraseology” by V. Kuzmich; “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by A. Fedoseyev; "Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language" by I. Fedoseyev and "The Big Explanatory Phraseological Dictionary" by M. Michelson.
• Multilingual: “The Big English-Russian Phraseological Dictionary” (twenty thousand phraseological turns) by A. Kunin, “The Big Polish-Russian, Russian-Polish Phraseological Dictionary” by Yu. Lukshin and Random House Russian-English Dictionary of Idioms by Sofia Lyubenskaya.

Perhaps, having learned that it is sometimes difficult to immediately distinguish between what kind of phraseological unit belongs to, this topic may seem incredibly complex. However, the devil is not so terrible as he is painted. The main way to develop the ability to correctly find the phraseological combination of words among other phraseological units is to train regularly. And in the case of foreign languages ​​- to study the history of the occurrence of such phrases and memorize them. This will not only help in the future not to get into awkward situations, but also make the speech very beautiful and imaginative.