In ancient Greece, the ability to speak eloquently was considered art. However, the classification was mainly carried out only between Krasnoslovy, poetry and acting. Rhetoric was primarily interpreted as the science of word and poetry, prose and eloquence. A speaker is both a poet and a master of words. They studied rhetoric in antiquity. Speakers most of all resorted to exclusively poetic devices, with the goal of enhancing the expressiveness of their speech. Today's speech genre determine depending on the communication sphere corresponding to its own function: communication, communication and impact.
The view of different thinkers on rhetoric
In the views of many ancient thinkers there is an assimilation of rhetorical excellence to the art of painting and sculpture, as well as architectural science. But such statements often look unconvincing. Most often, oratory was considered as the sister of stage art and poetry. Aristotle in Rhetoric and Poetics compares eloquence and poetry, finding something in common between them. And Cicero used acting techniques in public speaking . Later, the speech genre as oratory formed the links between poetry, eloquence and acting. The same Lomonosov M.V. in his work on rhetoric ("A Brief Guide to the Benefit of the Lovers of Red Speech") talks about the paramount importance of the artistic components of public speaking. By his definition, eloquence means eloquence, i.e. "Speak red." The splendor and power of the word, vividly representing what is being described, is capable of exciting and satisfying human passions. This is, according to the scientist, the main goal of the speaker. Similar thoughts were expressed in the book of A. Merzlyakov “On the true qualities of the poet and orator” (1824).
The connection of rhetoric and poetry
Merzlyakov considers the poet and speaker as people engaged in the same creative work. This indicates that he did not draw a sharp line between the poet and the rhetorician. Belinsky V.G. also wrote about a certain connection between poetry and Krasnoslovia, which the speech genre has. He argued that poetry is an element of eloquence (not a goal, but a means). Russian judicial speaker Koni A.F. wrote about the skill of public speaking as a true work, including artistry and elements of poetry, expressed in oral form. A speaker is a person who must have a creative imagination. According to Koni, the difference between a poet and a speaker is that they come to the same reality, starting from different points of view.
What is a speech genre? The definition of speech
The general concept of speech is interpreted by linguistic dictionaries and reference books as the activity of a speaker using a language aimed at interacting with other members of a given language group, using different means of speech, the purpose of which is to transmit complex content that includes information directed to the listener and encourages him to act or the answer. Speech proceeds in time and is clothed in sound (including internal) or written form. The result of such an activity is recorded by memory or writing. In modern practice, oratory goes beyond the poetic eloquence, as it was in antiquity. The genre of speech is determined by purpose and means. Each type of performance has its own genres, which over time have been classified by direction and style. This is a cultural form of speech, a stable type of utterance that has a thematic, stylistic and compositional character.
Types of oratory (speech) genre
In modern science, the speech genre is classified as follows: socio-political, academic, judicial, social, church-theological (spiritual). The type of speech genre is characterized by a specific object of speech, which has specifics in the system of its analysis and a similar assessment.
The classification is situational and thematic in nature. It takes into account the situation of the speech, the topic and its purpose. Socio-political include: speeches on social, political, economic, cultural, ethical, moral, scientific and technical topics, reports, diplomatic, military-patriotic, rallies, campaigns, parliamentary. A special place belongs to spiritual rhetoric in church-theological life. This is important for expounding and popularizing religious topics.
Theological and official styles
The church-theological style of oratory includes types of speech genres, including sermons, salutatory words, obituaries, conversations, teachings, messages, lectures in theological educational institutions, speeches in the media (persons of clergy). This genre is special: believers usually act as listeners. The topics of speeches are taken from the Holy Scriptures, the writings of the church fathers and other sources. They perform in a genre that bears the features of formality, business and scientific styles. It is based on a system that implies the availability of official documents. Such speeches are aimed at analyzing the situation in the country, world events, the purpose of which is to illuminate specific information. They contain political, economic and other similar facts, an assessment of events, recommendations, reports on the work done. As a rule, they are devoted to pressing problems or include appeals, explanations of theoretical programs.
Selection and use of language tools
In this case, the theme and purpose of the speech are important in the first place. Some political speeches are characterized by stylistic features that characterize the official style, which implies impersonality or its weak manifestation, book coloring, political vocabulary, special terms (for example, economic). These features characterize the features of the speech genre. and determine the use of funds (visual, emotional) to achieve the desired effect. For example, at a rally, the report is conscriptive, but it is carried out using colloquial vocabulary and syntax. A striking example is P. Stolypin’s speech “On the right of peasants to leave the community” (pronounced in the State Council on March 15, 1910)
Academic and Judicial Eloquence
Academic oratory is characterized by speech that helps to shape the scientific type of worldview, which is distinguished by deep argumentation, logic, and culture. These include lectures at universities, scientific reports and reviews (reports). Course language style academic eloquence is close to scientific, but it often uses expressive and pictorial means. For example, academician Nechkin writes about Klyuchevsky as a master who is fluent in Russian. Klyuchevsky’s dictionary is so rich that you can find in it many words of art, folk rhetoric, proverbs, sayings with the use of living expressions characteristic of ancient documents. Academic eloquence on Russian soil was formed at the beginning of the 19th century. and was aimed at awakening socio-political consciousness. The university departments became the stands for advanced oratory. This is due to the fact that in 40-60 years. young scientists came to work for them, who were inherent in progressive European ideas. Granovsky, Soloviev, Sechenov, Mendeleev, Stoletov, Timiryazev, Vernadsky, Fersman, Vavilov - lecturers who fascinated the audience with their speech.
The judicial art of speakers is designed to have a targeted and effective impact on the audience. Allocate: prosecutorial (accusatory) and lawyer (defensive) speech.
Variety of shapes
The variety of characters and forms of language use is due to the presence of many forms of human activity. Speech types are written and oral. They reflect the conditions and tasks of a particular field of activity, thanks to the content, style, means (vocabulary, phraseology, grammar), composition. The scope of use is developing its own genres and types. These include everyday dialogue, a story, a letter, an order, business documents.
Heterogeneity makes it difficult to determine the general nature of utterances.
Speech genres are divided into secondary and primary (complex and simple). Complicated are written (mostly fiction, scientific articles, etc.). Simple - communication through speech. If we focus only on the primary ones, a situation of “vulgarization” of the problem will arise. Only the study of two types in unity has linguistic and philological significance.
The problem of genres according to Bakhtin
The ratio of generally accepted (folk) and individual styles is the problematic issue of expression. In order to study the style well, it is necessary to responsibly approach the issue of studying the genre (speech). The fact that speech can exist in reality only in the form of specific statements of individual speaking people (subjects), Bakhtin said. Speech genres underlie his concept of views on speech as a real unit of communication. According to Bakhtin, speech is molded in the form of a statement and cannot exist without it. The change of speech subjects is the first feature of the utterance. The second is completeness (integrity), which has a relationship with:
- substantive exhaustion;
- speech intention (by the will of the speaker);
- forms of completion typical of composition and genre of completion.
The genre of the planned statement affects the choice of vocabulary. M.M. Bakhtin attaches great importance to genre forms. Thanks to the recognition of the genre, from the very beginning of communication we have the feeling of a speech whole. Without this, communication would be difficult and almost impossible.
Oral genre
Oral is the speech that a person hears. Moreover, he selects only those “sound images” that are close to him, understandable. Everything else is passed, as they say, "past the ears." This is a necessity, because in the whole flow of speech words flowing one after another give rise to images according to the principle of metonymy, contiguity, logic. In communication use the following oral speech genres:
- conversation - exchange of views or other information;
- compliments - the praise of the interlocutor, the purpose of which is to give him pleasure;
- a story is a monologue of one of the interlocutors whose purpose is to narrate a case, event, etc .;
- conversation - speech directed to the interlocutor, with the goal of delivering information, clarification or to clarify the relationship;
- dispute - a dialogue aimed at clarifying the truth.
Oral speech, as well as written, has its own rules and regulations. Sometimes, some flaws in spoken language, such as incomplete statements, weak structure, interruption, reprise, and similar elements, are a necessary condition for a successful and effective result.
Dialogue in the genres of speech
The dialogue is accompanied by the obligatory use of the “paralinguistic” means necessary for the oral speech genre. Everyday household dialogue is a sphere of “mixed” speech that implements the function of communication inextricably linked with non-linguistic means. A characteristic feature of communication through speech is the dialogical principle. This means that the communicative roles are in an alternating state (roles are changing). Formally, it looks like this: one says - the second listens. But this is an ideal scheme, which is practically not implemented in its pure form. The listener often remains passive or fills pauses with facial expressions, gestures (paralinguistic means of communication). Features that characterize everyday dialogue:
- unplannedness;
- a wide variety of issues in the discussion;
- quick change of topics;
- conversational style;
- lack of targets;
- emotionality and expressiveness.
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