In the article we will consider the main linguistic categories, give examples. You will learn that in linguistics different associations are distinguished by which one or another unit can be classified.
What is a category
The very concept of "category" was first developed by Aristotle. In particular, he identified 10 categories. We list them: undergoing, action, condition, position, time, place, attitude, quality, quantity, essence. In many respects, their selection influenced the subsequent inventory of various predicates, predicates, sentence members, and parts of speech.
Conceptual category
Before considering linguistic categories and problems of linguistic categorization, it is necessary to clarify this term. It is usually understood as a closed system of values of a semantic universal attribute or the specific meaning of a given attribute outside of the way of expression (“explicit” or “hidden”) and the degree of their grammaticalization in a given language. For example, we can talk about the presence of the following conceptual categories: alienability / inalienability, activity / inactivity, causes, places, goals, etc. In linguistics, there are lexico-semantic linguistic categories. By them we mean classes such as the names of states, professions, living beings, etc. If a word-forming formal expression is received by a categorizing seme, linguistic categories are called word-formative. Examples are: diminutive names (pancake-chik, smoke-ok, house-ik), names of the activist (run-un, carriage, teacher).
Linguistic categories in the broad and narrow sense
Language categories are associations that can be considered both in a broad and a narrow sense. In the first case, these are any groups of elements that are allocated based on a common property. In a narrow sense, language categories are certain parameters (features) that underlie the division of homogeneous units into a certain number of disjoint classes. Their members are characterized by some value of a particular attribute. Examples: category of type, case, animation / inanimate, deafness / voiced, etc. However, often this term designates one of the values of this parameter (sign). Examples: category of inanimate, accusative, state, deafness, perfect look.
Types of categories on various grounds
Depending on the nature of the corresponding attribute and the set distinguished by it, as well as on its relation to the partition classes, different types of categories can be distinguished. Many can include phonemes, which are homogeneous units. In this case, various phonological linguistic categories are distinguished. This, for example, distinguishes deafness / voiced. Another example is the category of consonant consonants. According to the differential phonetic feature, classification is performed in this case.
A set divided into categories may include two-sided units. Usually they are sentences, phrases and words. In this case, word-formation, lexical-semantic, syntactic, grammatical and other categories are distinguished. On a certain semantic or syntactic basis classification is carried out. It can be both syntactic, semantic, and general category (this word is often understood as "referring to parts of speech").
Classifying and modifying characteristics
Other signs stand out. In relation to partition classes, they are divided into classifying (selective, integral) and modifying (flexion, differential). A sign for a certain object is modifying when it corresponds to an element of some other class of partition, which differs from it only in the value of this sign. This correspondence is called the opposition. If this is not observed, the attribute is classifying for the corresponding element. In what case can one speak of varieties of a more general unit that varies by this attribute? Let's answer this question. Then, when the elements differ from each other only in the values of one or another modifying attribute. As for the classifier, its value is constant, fixed for a given unit.
Modifying and classifying categories
In a number of cases, for most elements of a multitude, the attribute is modifying. Then the category as a whole is also called modifying. For example, these are inflectional (inflectional) categories. These include the case and the number of the noun, case, number, gender of the adjective, mood, tense, person, number of the gender of the verb. If for a sufficient number of elements the categorical attribute is a classifier, then the category as a whole will be the same. For example, these are lexical-semantic categories. Examples: animation, gender and parts of speech of a noun, transitive / intransitive, noun verb classes, etc.
Rules and Exclusions
The type to which this or that category should be assigned depends on what classification of language units was originally, as well as what is the “rule” for a particular class, and what can be called an “exception”. For example, we can assume that in the Russian language for some classes of verbs a category of the form is inflectional (modifying), and for other classes of it is a derivational (classifying) one. Or one of these decisions can be made with respect to a whole class of verb tokens. Note that they are all represented in Russian studies.
Offer Categories
Studying the paradigmatic relations existing in the syntax, many researchers use the concepts of “communicative-grammatical categories” or “categories of sentences”. By them are meant the semantic differential features of certain sentences (syntactic modality, affirmation / negation, purposefulness of utterance). Less often, we can talk about individual values of these characteristics (for example, the category of negation). A number of researchers, in particular, N. Yu. Shvedov, offer a different concept. They talk about phrase-changing categories. There are other concepts.
Grammar categories
Grammatical linguistic categories and their types are among the most studied and most important. Their characteristic features are the modifying type of the feature taken as a basis, its involvement in the syntax, the existence of a regular way in which it is expressed, as well as the “obligatory nature” of choosing one of its meanings for (word) forms belonging to this aggregate. Grammatical categories are closed meaning systems that are mutually exclusive. They define a partition into disjoint classes of a vast collection of word forms. For example, grammatical meanings such as the plural or singular form in their totality the category of number.
Text concept
Before considering the linguistic categories of the text, we define a key concept. The text is the object of a multidimensional study in linguistics, however, in the literature, this concept is still interpreted differently. There is also no generally accepted definition of it. Therefore, consider the one that is most common.
The text in general terms is characterized as a product of a specific activity of people (speech-thinking). The latter can arise both in the process of indirect and direct communication, and in the process of a person's knowledge of the surrounding reality.
Text as a linguistic category
Its units form components (structural elements), being deployed in a separate proposal or their groups. A sentence (text, phrase, statement) is the main element of the text. It is recognized and perceived as related to other proposals. That is, it is a component of the text, part of the whole. A sentence is its smallest communicative unit.
SSC (SFE)
At the same time, in the structure of the text , sentences are sometimes combined into groups that have received different names from various researchers. V. A. Buchbinder, for example, calls them phrasal ensembles and phrasal unities. Complex syntactic integers (SSC) are considered by N. S. Pospelov, A. P. Peshkovsky, S. G. Ilyenko, L. M. Loseva. Superphrase Unities (SFU) are called them T. M. Nikolaeva, O. I. Moskalskaya, I. R. Halperin. SFE and SSC are most often used to signify a group of related sentences. This is a very complex structural unity, which consists of at least two independent sentences, which have meaningful integrity in the context of connected speech, and also act as part of a complete communication.
Free and strong offers
Note that not all sentences are grouped in the text structure. Free ones are also singled out, which are not included in them, but are connected by semantic relations with one or another group. They contain comments, copyright derogations. Such proposals act as a link between the SSC, are the means by which a new microtheme is indicated.
Some researchers, in addition, highlight strong sentences in the text. They can be understood without knowing the content of others. Such proposals are not included in the SSC.
Communicative Blocks and Larger Associations
What other linguistic categories of text can be distinguished? Offer groups are combined into blocks of even larger parts. They are called in various studies either fragments or predicative-relational complexes. Another common name is communication blocks.
Associations are even larger. They are associated with the following sections of text: chapter, part, paragraph, paragraph.
So, sentences and their groups are the main communicative elements of the text. All others perform, as a rule, a text-forming function. They are usually means of interphase communication. Let us give a definition to this concept.
Interphase coupling
It is a connection between the SSC, sentences, chapters, paragraphs and other parts of the text, which organizes its structural and semantic unity. At the same time, a semantic connection between individual sentences is provided using lexical and grammatical means. It is most often a parallel or chain connection. The latter is realized by repeating a member of the previous sentence in one form or another, deploying in the subsequent part of its structure. Offers in parallel communication are not linked, but matched. In this case, the parallelism of the structures allows for the juxtaposition or comparison, depending on the corresponding lexical content.
Means of implementation of various types of communication
With the help of language, each type of communication is implemented . For example, particles, conjunctions, introductory words, etc. are used to connect parts of the text. To carry out a chain connection between sentences, SSC uses synonyms, syntactic repetitions, words with spatial and temporal meanings, pronouns, etc. As for parallel communication, it is appropriate for its implementation parallelism in constructing sentences. It is expressed in the use of verbs that have a common temporal plan, anaphoric elements, the same word order, etc.
Linguistic categories of creolized texts
They are characterized by the same categories as the so-called classical verbal homogeneous texts. It is necessary to clarify the concept of "creolization". This is a combination of various means of sign systems in a complex that meets the condition of textuality. Fine components relate to the means by which the creolization of verbal texts is carried out. They have a significant impact on their interpretation and on all technical issues associated with the design of the text, which affect their meaning. The following stand out among them: background, color and font of the text, punctuation, spelling, word formation, graphic design (in a column, in the form of a figure), printed iconic symbols (ideograms, pictograms), etc.
The text, therefore, is a definite structure where parts and individual sentences are interconnected. Linguistic and logical categories are a topic that can be revealed for a very long time. We tried to highlight the most important thing that every philologist needs to know.