Rhetoric is of great importance in society. Having mastered the art of speaking beautifully, a person can achieve great heights in interaction with other people. This science appeared in ancient times, but at each stage of its development, it had distinctive features and gave the world outstanding speakers. And each period and culture had its rhetorical ideals.
What it is
What does the concept of rhetorical ideal include? This is a system of general requirements for speech, its standard, which are a reflection of the culture of the people. The rhetorical ideal is also an important criterion for evaluating works of art. It has important properties:
- historical variability - ideas about the ideal change over time;
- cultural specificity - oratory has national characteristics;
- social features - reflects the development of society in a particular historical era.
The first concepts about the standard of beautiful speech appeared even in Ancient Greece, in the era of which there were many prominent speakers who made a great contribution to the development of this science.
Reasons for the appearance of rhetoric
The first mention of rhetoric appears around the 5th century BC. e. The emergence of oratory is associated with the emergence of democracy in Athens. What other factors influenced the development of the ability to speak beautifully?
- Rhetoric in ancient Greece was considered the highest step in education. Therefore, in Hellas there were even special schools where they taught oratory.
- The ancient Greeks paid great attention to moral education. Therefore, one who spoke publicly had to be kind and possess other valiant qualities. The speaker’s speeches also pursued moral goals.
- In ancient Greece, speakers often spoke with panegyrics - these are eulogies or solemn speeches.
Classical rhetoric in the ancient era included information about various sciences: philosophy, logic, literature, grammar, psychology and others. It reflected the culture and life of the ancient Greeks. In the ancient period, oratory possessed the following properties:
- phrases were built symmetrically (sentences had the same endings);
- used metaphors and comparisons;
- rhythmic division of phrases and sentences, the use of rhyme.
The rhetorical ideal of antiquity made it possible to combine Greek and Latin cultures, creating a single cultural space.
School of sophists
Sophists in ancient Greece called paid teachers of rhetoric, who were representatives of the school of the same name. The followers of this teaching could hide the basic information behind the details, because it was so beneficial for them. The main features of the rhetorical ideal of the sophists were as follows:
- the speech was manipulative in nature and was presented in the form of a monologue;
- skillful manipulation of details could bring victory in verbal contests;
- the purpose of oratory was not the establishment of truth, but the achievement of victory;
- external speech design is more important than its internal content;
- sophists believed that there is no definite truth, but there are different opinions, and it is important to prove the truth of their reasoning.
The main goal of the sophist rhetoric was to achieve victory, material wealth and skillful manipulation of the feelings of the crowd. Sophists were very popular among the inhabitants of ancient Greece. The reasoning of the representatives of this school is called sophism, they are logical, but at the same time they may not correspond to the truth. Therefore, many consider sophistry to be a negative phenomenon. The ardent opponents of the rhetorical ideal of the sophists were Socrates and Plato.
Representations of oratory of Socrates and Plato
These pundits were one of the greatest philosophers of the ancient era, who had a strong influence on the development of philosophy, oratory and culture in ancient Greece. Socrates was a teacher of Plato, so their ideas about rhetoric are similar. A peculiarity of his teachings was that after him there was not a single written document, he set forth all his thoughts in conversations with his students.
The rhetorical ideal of Socrates:
- The ability to briefly formulate a problem or question, listen to versions of opponents and give concise answers during a conversation.
- Encouraging the interlocutor to enter into a dialogue, rather than manipulating his opinion.
- The main purpose of the conversation is not to achieve someone's victory in the dispute, but to achieve a common goal in the conversation by all participants.
- During the conversation, all participants should strive to establish the truth.
The ideas about oratory of Socrates and Plato differed from the ideas of the sophists. For them, beautiful speech was not a way to achieve material benefits or other benefits, but an opportunity to determine the truth in a conversation by combining all the efforts of the participants in the conversation.
Aristotle's views on rhetoric
Aristotle's contribution to the development of science was enormous. It was he who created the first textbook on oratory - "Rhetoric", which has survived to this day. This work consists of three parts. Aristotle formulated the basic laws of rhetoric:
- Speech provides the state and its goals.
- Every kind of oratory is a unity of ethos, pathos and logos.
- Every kind of oratory has its own relation to reality and time.
It was he who compiled special rules for the construction of speech, which are also known as the rhetorical canon. He paid special attention to the external design of speech, opposing the mixing of various styles. Representations of the rhetorical ideal of Aristotle were similar to those of Socrates and Plato. Speech should be as focused as possible on inducing a person to enter into dialogue, achieving maximum informational content of the conversation.
Oratory in Ancient Rome
The ancient Romans successfully adopted the Hellenic culture. Including the art of talking beautifully. Despite the fact that eloquence had its own national characteristics, this skill was largely formed under the influence of Greek culture. Initially, rhetoric was taught at the school of Greek rhetoricians, but then two decrees were issued that prohibited the activity of Greek speakers.
But they were replaced by Latin rhetoricians, who, along with the Greek, taught rhetoric. They successfully crafted the features of Greek oratory, adapting them to the Romans. Their lessons were more accessible, so the government banned the activities of such teachers. But young people went to Greece to study the art of eloquence.
The speakers of ancient Rome paid more attention than the Greeks to the stylistic design of speech. Sometimes even to the detriment of the logic and semantic structure of the text. Eloquence influenced all varieties of literature, especially the development of a genre such as a novel, which is the pinnacle of the development of ancient culture.
Cicero's contribution to the development of rhetoric
One of the most famous representatives of classical Latin oratory was Cicero. He was the author of many well-known works on eloquence and the development of literature, for example: "About the Orator", "Orator". In them, he tries to formulate his ideas about the development of the art of eloquence.
The rhetorical ideal of a speaker in ancient Rome is a comprehensively educated person, a well-educated, attentive listener who always explores various manifestations of life in order to gain a new experience, which he should be ready to share with others. Cicero believed that the rhetor should have been able to:
- win over listeners;
- correctly state the essence of the matter;
- raise a moot point;
- affirm their position;
- find the right arguments against the enemy;
- beautifully arrange speech and weaken the position of the enemy.
Cicero believed that public speaking should be in the same style, negligence in the construction of sentences and the selection of words was not allowed. The Roman speaker believed that rhetoric and philosophy are one, because people learn the world through speech, and eloquence is associated with the teaching of other disciplines.
The development of eloquence in ancient Russia
Rhetoric developed unevenly in Ancient Russia. In the 11-12 centuries, eloquence occupied one of the important places in society. Developed not only church, but also secular oratory. The Old Russian eloquence was practical, therefore the works created in that period were called teachings and conversations.
The first Old Russian teaching is "A Precept to the Brotherhood," written by the bishop of Novgorod, Luke Zhidyat. It describes the list of rules of conduct that a Christian must adhere to. But, of course, one of the greatest works of the 12th century is the collection "The teachings of Vladimir Monomakh." This work consists of three parts connected by one political idea - the unification of Russian lands.
Vladimir Monomakh formed ethical rules. He wrote scripture quotes. But the ruler most of all wanted the Russian lands to be united.
Also, one of the outstanding literary works of Ancient Russia can be called "Zadonshchina", which described the struggle of the Russian people with the Tatar-Mongol tribes.
The Russian rhetorical ideal was distinguished from others by a high degree of respect for wise speeches, eloquence. The speeches were instructive in nature, they contained a call for good deeds. For a Russian person, the ability to speak is a great grace. Speakers should have been humble and humble during their speeches.
Contribution M.V. Lomonosov in the development of Russian rhetoric
MV Lomonosov created the first textbook on rhetoric in Russian in 1743, and in 1748 an expanded second edition was published. A famous scientist called his work "The Brief Art of Eloquence." It was this work that influenced the further development of oratory in Russia.
MV Lomonosov devoted great importance to the "targeting" of speech. He believed that in order for the performance to be successful, it was necessary to take into account the age, gender and education of the audience. Only with all these nuances taken into account could the speaker be sure that his speech would achieve its goal. MV Lomonosov believed that in the art of eloquence it is necessary to constantly exercise in order to improve one’s skill.
Rhetoric in Russia in the 19-20 centuries
In the second half of the 19th century, interest in oratory began to fade away. This was due to the fact that an intelligent society changed its aesthetic views, its representatives were already not interested in lofty speeches.
In the post-revolutionary period in Russia, rhetoric was excluded from the public education system. The political regime in the country required a standardized language, devoid of personality. Therefore, the authorities closed all educational institutions and faculties, which emphasized the teaching of rhetoric.
What is rhetoric
The modern rhetorical ideal is studied by rhetoric. She appeared in the middle of the 20th century. Its rapid development is associated with the emergence of new linguistic disciplines. The modern rhetorical ideal is determined by the following factors:
- "Europeanization" and "Americanization" of society.
- Distribution of western marketing and advertising techniques.
- The development of business rhetoric.
- The influence of the media on rhetoric.
Each culture has its own national rhetorical ideal. But the development of oratory is influenced by the most developed culture of eloquence (for example, the development of Latin oratory in Greek). Rhetoric has a great influence on the development of society and social interaction between people.