Language is a unique phenomenon, if only because it is the only scientific phenomenon that describes itself. In addition, its nature is very complex, which gives rise to many scientific approaches, various theories and methods for describing the essence of language.
Modern linguistics recognizes language as a complex sign system.
Systems approach
A systematic approach as a methodological requirement entered linguistics thanks to the works of F. de Saussure. A system is usually understood as the unity of homogeneous interconnected elements. But language unites units of different orders, and therefore is recognized as a complex structure, which interact with each other subsystems of the individual tiers of the language structure. These tiers form the levels of the language system. A significant characteristic of systemic relations in a language is their hierarchy: units of each subsequent tier consist of units of the previous one.
The concept of language level
Each layer of the language is essentially a system, as it is formed by elements entering into certain relationships.
The names of the levels of the language system correspond to the traditionally distinguished sections of the language:
- phonetics (phonetic level);
- morphemic (morphemic level);
- vocabulary (lexical level);
- syntax (syntactic level).
Within each circle of the linguistic structure, it is customary to distinguish its constituent components - units. At the phonetic level, these are phonemes, at the morphemic level - morphemes, etc. The uniformity of the units of each tier is relative, since language exists in two material forms - oral and written.
The identification of language levels is the result of the analytical division of the language, and not the stages of its development.
So, by the level of the language we understand the tier (subsystem) of the general system of the language, characterized by the presence of specific units that operate according to certain rules and laws.
Consider the main language levels in more detail.
Phonetics
The phonetic language level describes the sound composition of speech. The central component of this tier is the phoneme (sound). This is the ultimate, that is, further indivisible, unit of language.
The dual nature of the language determines that phonetics is also associated with graphics that study the means of transmitting sounds in writing. The unit of graphics is a letter.
Despite the fact that phonetics is the basic, initial tier of the language system, this is a rather extensive and complex section. In the school course of the Russian language, it is presented in an extremely truncated form.
Phonetics examines the sounds of speech from the point of view of the method and place of articulation, their compatibility and acoustic characteristics, positional changes in sounds in the flow of speech, intonation and stress.
By the way, about stress: it is traditionally accepted to attribute orthoepy to the phonetic level of the language. But this is not the only point of view, since this section of linguistics regulates the rules for pronunciation of words, and this is the lexical level of the language. Orthoepy is not the only section in the language that can be attributed to different levels. Sometimes in such cases they talk about a transitional, or adjacent, sublevel.
Morphemic
This language level is dedicated to the morphemic composition (system) of the language, its unit is the morpheme. It is usually called the minimum significant unit, since the semantics of the word are contained in the root, and the root is a morpheme. In addition, a significant number of affixes in the Russian language matter. For example, using the suffix, the body forms nouns that name the one who performs or performs an action: teacher, driver, educator. Thus, the formation of meaning occurs precisely at this level of the language; at the previous category of meaning is absent.
In Russian, the following morphemes are distinguished:
- root;
- the foundation;
- affixes.
Affixes include the prefix (prefix), suffix, inflection (ending), postfix (affix standing after the end) and interfix (connecting vowels).
Word formation adjoins morphemic, but it is a transitional section, a kind of bridge from morphemic to vocabulary.
Vocabulary
The lexical language level describes the vocabulary of the language from various perspectives. The basic unit of the level is a token (word). The structure of this tier is very heterogeneous. Depending on which side of the word is considered, we can talk about the following sections of the language that operate at the lexical level:
- etymology - studies the origin of words;
- semantics - explores the subject-conceptual meaning of the word;
- morphology - considers a word from the point of view of its belonging to one or another part of speech;
- lexicography - describes the rules and principles of compiling dictionaries;
- onomasiology - considers the process of naming;
- onomastics - studies proper names.
Sometimes phraseology and spelling are attributed to the same tier. The latter is more often associated with graphics and is considered at the first of the described levels.
The diverse relationships into which words enter are also considered at the vocabulary level: synonymy, paronymy, antonymy, homonymy.
Syntax
The syntactic language level explores phrases and sentences, as well as the rules for their construction. Accordingly, the units of syntax are phrases and sentences. Sometimes they include a complex syntactic whole and text. The concept of sentence members is also an attribute of syntax.
There is a descriptive syntax and historical, constructive and communicative, general and particular, etc.
The syntax is adjacent to punctuation, which regulates the rules for setting punctuation marks.
The generally accepted approach to highlighting language levels suggests that syntax is the final tier of the language structure. The presented classification of language levels is traditional, but not the only one in linguistics.
Text
The text is not considered to be a linguistic unit, it is considered as a speech work. In the works of some linguists, the text is contrasted with language on the basis of the opposite of the principles of their internal organization. Moreover, it is indicated that the text has its own systematic character and units. But he does not stand out in a separate level.
At present, linguists are still trying to develop a synthetic approach that would allow us to consider the text as a work of speech and a unit of language. This would allow the text as a conceptual category to take a more definite place in the system of language levels.
Competent Approach
The linguistic level of speech is reflected in the formation of linguistic competence. Its components partially overlap with the levels of the structure of the language:
- Phonetic. It assumes knowledge of phonemes, their acoustic and articulatory characteristics, features of the intonational and rhythmic organization of speech, possession of orthoepic norms.
- Lexical. It consists in the characteristics of the vocabulary, including mastery of phraseology, knowledge of proverbs and sayings, use of the synonymous capabilities of the language, etc.
- Semantic. It is expressed in the knowledge of the meanings of words and expressions and the ability to correctly select and use lexical means in accordance with the communicative task.
- Grammatical. It implies mastery of the grammar norms of the language, including the ability to correctly construct sentences taking into account syntactic laws and rules for combining words.
- Orthographic. It requires knowledge of the rules for the graphic design of written language, including spelling rules. This also includes the ability to use the dictionary.
Studying of foreign language
When learning a foreign language, the following levels of language knowledge are distinguished:
- initial (A1);
- elementary (A2);
- first middle (B1);
- medium (B1 +);
- above average (B2);
- advanced (C1);
- fluency (C2).
This scale is a generally accepted European system.
Language Proficiency System
The first level is also called the level of survival. It assumes that you can identify individual familiar words and phrases while listening and reading, be able to introduce yourself, fill out a registration card or greeting card, and maintain a simple conversation on a familiar topic (place of residence, relatives and acquaintances), but only if if the interlocutor’s speech is slow and distinct, it can be repeated if necessary. It also involves the ability to ask basic questions and answer them.
The second level assumes that you are able to read a short text, write a short letter, a note or a message, support communication in a typical situation on a household or well-known topic, are able to recognize phrases and expressions in the sounding speech, but still need to participate in the dialogue in slow motion of the interlocutor’s speech and clear articulation.
The third level means that you can write a coherent text, reflecting your emotions and impressions, and also know the language material in the framework of professional and everyday communication, are able to maintain a dialogue on frequent and familiar topics even without special agreement with the interlocutor about the need for a clearly pronounced pronunciation.
The fourth level involves expanding the range of topics that you can freely speak, the absence of difficulties in communication, the ability to verbally and in writing to state and substantiate your point of view on a particular problem.
The fifth level means that you can easily understand everything that is broadcast on TV, listen to lectures and reports, create detailed reasoned texts, read fiction without resorting to a dictionary.
The sixth level is free communication at a fast pace on professional and scientific topics, the ability to distinguish stylistic shades, the ability to study not only fiction, but also special literature, including technical instructions, the ability to create voluminous and complexly organized texts.
The seventh level is fluency in the language in all aspects.