A sociological study is a kind of system of organizational and technical procedures, thanks to which one can obtain scientific knowledge about social phenomena. This is a system of theoretical and empirical procedures that are collected in the methods of sociological research.
Types of Research
Before you begin to consider the basic methods of sociological research, it is worth exploring their varieties. Basically, research is divided into three large groups: by purpose, by duration and depth of analysis.
According to the goals of sociological research are divided into fundamental and applied. Fundamental determine and study social trends and patterns of social development. The results of these studies help solve complex problems. In turn, applied ones study specific objects and solve certain problems that are not global in nature.
All methods of sociological research differ from each other in their duration. So, there are:
- Long-term studies that last more than 3 years.
- Medium-term validity from six months to 3 years.
- Short-term lasts from 2 to 6 months.
- Rapid studies are carried out very quickly - from 1 week to 2 months maximum.
Studies also differ in their depth, while dividing into search, descriptive and analytical.
Exploratory research is considered the simplest, they are used when the subject of research has not yet been studied. They have a simplified toolkit and program; they are most often used in the preliminary stages of larger studies to provide guidance on what and where to collect information.
Thanks to descriptive studies, scientists get a holistic view of the phenomena studied. They are carried out, based on the full program of the chosen method of sociological research, using detailed tools and a large number of people to conduct surveys.
Analytical studies describe social phenomena and their causes.
About methodology and methods
In reference books, such a concept as methodology and methods of sociological research is often found. For those who are far from science, it is worth explaining one fundamental difference between them. Methods are methods of using organizational and technical procedures designed to collect sociological information. Methodology is the totality of all possible research methods. Thus, the methodology and methods of sociological research can be considered related concepts, but not identical.
All methods that are known in sociology can be divided into two large groups: methods that are designed to collect melon, and those that are responsible for their processing.
In turn, the methods of sociological research responsible for collecting data are divided into quantitative and qualitative. Qualitative methods help the scientist understand the essence of the occurrence of the phenomenon, while quantitative methods show how massively it has spread.
The family of quantitative methods of sociological research include:
- Opinion poll.
- Content analysis of documents.
- Interview.
- Observation.
- Experiment.
Qualitative methods of sociological research are focus groups, case studies. It also includes unstructured interviews and ethnographic studies.
As for the methods of analysis of sociological research, these include all kinds of statistical methods, such as ranking or scaling. To be able to apply statistics, sociologists use special software, such as OSA or SPSS.
Opinion poll
The first and main method of sociological research is social survey. A survey is a method of collecting information about a test subject during a survey or interview.
With the help of a survey, you can get information that is not always displayed in documentary sources or impossible to notice during the experiment. A survey is resorted to when a person is the only and necessary source of information. Verbal information obtained through this method is considered more reliable than any other. It is easier to analyze and turn into quantitative indicators.
Another advantage of this method is that it is universal. During the survey, the interviewer records the motives and results of the individual. This allows you to get the information that not one of the methods of sociological research is capable of giving. In sociology, the concept of information reliability is of great importance - this is when the respondent gives the same answers to the same questions. However, under different circumstances, a person can respond in different ways, so how the interviewer is able to take into account all the conditions and influence them is of great importance. It is necessary to maintain in a stable state as many factors as possible that affect reliability.
Each opinion poll begins with an adaptation phase, when the respondent receives a certain motivation for answers. This phase consists of a welcome and the first few questions. Previously, the content of the questionnaire, its purpose and the rules for filling out are explained to the respondent. The second stage is the achievement of the goal, that is, the collection of basic information. During the survey, especially if the questionnaire is very long, the respondent’s interest in the task may fade away. Therefore, the questionnaire often uses questions whose contents are interesting for the subject, but can be absolutely useless for research.
The last stage of the opinion poll is the completion of work. At the end of the questionnaire, usually write easy questions, most often this role is played by a demographic map. This method helps relieve tension, and the respondent will be more loyal to the interviewer. Indeed, as practice shows, if you do not take into account the condition of the subject, the majority of respondents refuse to answer questions already at half the questionnaire.
Document Content Analysis
Also, sociological research methods include document analysis. This technique is inferior in popularity except to opinion polls, but in some areas of research, it is content analysis that is considered the main one.
Content analysis of documents is widespread in the sociology of politics, law, civil movements, etc. Very often, when examining documents, scientists come up with new hypotheses, which are later tested by the survey method.
A document is a means of verifying information regarding facts, events, or phenomena of objective reality. When using documents, it is worth taking into account the experience and traditions of a particular field, as well as related humanities. During the analysis, it is worth critical to the information, this will help to correctly evaluate its objectivity.
Documents are classified according to various criteria. Depending on the methods of recording information, they are divided into written, phonetic, iconographic. If we take into account authorship, then the documents are official and personal origin. Also, motives influence the creation of documents. So, they provoke provoked and unprovoked materials.
Content analysis is an accurate study of the contents of a text array in order to determine or measure the social trends described in these arrays. This is a specific method of scientific and cognitive activity and sociological research. It is best used when there is a large amount of unsystematized material; if the text cannot be examined without summary estimates, or when a high level of accuracy is needed.
For example, literary critics have been trying for a very long time to establish which of the finals of The Mermaid belongs to Pushkin. Using content analysis and special computing programs, it was possible to establish that only one of them belongs to the author. Scientists made this conclusion, basing their opinion on the fact that each writer has his own style. The so-called frequency dictionary, that is, the specific repetition of various words. Having compiled the writer’s dictionary and comparing it with the frequency dictionary of all possible ending options, we found out that it was the original version of the Mermaid that was identical to Pushkin’s frequency dictionary.
The main thing in content analysis is to correctly define semantic units. They can be words, phrases and sentences. By analyzing documents in this way, a sociologist can easily understand the main trends, changes and predict further development in a particular social segment.
Interview
Another method of sociological research is an interview. By it is meant the personal communication of the sociologist and the respondent. The interviewer asks questions and captures the answers. The interview can be direct, that is, face-to-face, or indirect, for example, by phone, mail, online, etc.
According to the degree of freedom of the interview, there are:
- Formalized. In this case, the sociologist always clearly follows the research program. In methods of sociological research, this method is often used in indirect surveys.
- Semi-formalized. Here, the order of the questions and their wording may vary depending on how the conversation goes.
- Informal. Interviews can be conducted without questionnaires, depending on the course of the conversation, the sociologist chooses the questions himself. This method is used in flight or expert interviews when it is not necessary to compare the results of the work performed.
Depending on who is the carrier of information, polls are:
- Massive. Here, the main sources of information are representatives of various social groups.
- Specialized. When only persons who are knowledgeable in a particular survey are interviewed, which allows you to get quite authoritative answers. This survey is often called an expert interview.
In short, the method of sociological research (in a particular case, an interview) is a very flexible tool for collecting primary information. Interviews are indispensable if you need to study phenomena that cannot be observed from the side.
Observation in Sociology
This is a method of purposefully recording information about the object of perception. In sociology distinguish between scientific and everyday observation. The characteristic features of scientific research are determination and regularity. Scientific observation is subject to specific goals and is carried out according to a pre-prepared plan. The researcher records the results of observation and monitors their stability. There are three main features of observation:
- The method of sociological research suggests that cognition of social reality is closely related to the personal preferences of the scientist and his value orientations.
- The sociologist emotionally perceives the object of observation.
- It is difficult to repeat the observation, since objects are always exposed to various factors that change them.
Thus, when observing, the sociologist encounters a number of difficulties of a subjective nature, since he interprets what he sees through the prism of his judgments. As for objective problems, here we can say the following: not all social facts can be observed, all observed processes are limited in time. Therefore, this method is used as additional for collecting sociological information. Observation is used if you need to deepen your knowledge or when it is impossible to obtain the necessary information using other methods.
The monitoring program consists of the following stages:
- Defining goals and objectives.
- The choice of the type of observation that most accurately meets the tasks.
- Identification of the object and subject.
- Choosing a method for fixing data.
- Interpretation of the information received.
Types of observation
Each specific method of sociological observation is classified according to various criteria. The observation method is no exception. According to the degree of formalization, it is divided into structured and not structuralized. That is, those that are conducted according to a predetermined plan and spontaneously when only the object of observation is known.
According to the position of the observer, such experiments are included and not included. In the first case, the sociologist is directly involved in the studied object. For example, it contacts with the subject or participates with the studied subjects in one activity. With the observation not turned on, the scientist simply looks at how events are developing and fixes them. At the venue and observation conditions are field and laboratory. For laboratory, candidates are specially selected and a situation is played out, and in the field, a sociologist simply watches how individuals act in their natural environment. Also, observations are systematic when carried out repeatedly to measure the dynamics of changes, and random (that is, one-time).
Experiment
For sociological research methods, the collection of primary information plays a paramount role. But it is not always possible to observe a certain phenomenon or find respondents who have visited specific social conditions. Therefore, sociologists begin to conduct experiments. This specific method is based on the fact that the researcher and the subject interact in an artificially created environment.
An experiment is used when it is necessary to test hypotheses regarding the causes of certain social phenomena. Researchers compare two phenomena, where in one there is a hypothetical cause of the change, and in the second it is absent. If, under the influence of certain factors, the subject of research acts as previously predicted, then the hypothesis is considered proven.
Experiments are research and confirmatory. Research helps determine the cause of the occurrence of certain phenomena, and confirming establish how true these reasons are.
Before conducting an experiment, a sociologist must have all the necessary information about the research problem. First you need to formulate the problem and identify key concepts. Further designate variables, in particular external, that can significantly affect the course of the experiment. Particular attention should be paid to the selection of subjects. That is, take into account the characteristics of the general population, modeling it in a reduced format. Experimental and control subgroups should be equivalent.
During the experiment, the researcher has a direct impact on the experimental subgroup, while the control is not affected. The differences obtained are independent variables, from which new hypotheses are subsequently derived.
Focus group
Among the qualitative methods of sociological research, focus groups have long been in the first place. This method of obtaining information helps to obtain reliable data, without requiring long preparation and significant time costs.
To conduct a study, it is necessary to select from 8 to 12 people that were not previously familiar with each other, and appoint a moderator, the one who will conduct a dialogue with those present. All study participants should be familiar with the problem of study.
A focus group is a discussion of a specific social problem, product, phenomenon, etc. The main task of the moderator is to prevent the conversation from coming to naught. It should encourage participants to express their opinions. To do this, he asks leading questions, quotes or shows videos, asking them to comment. At the same time, each of the participants should express their opinion, without repeating the remarks already made.
The whole procedure lasts about 1-2 hours, is recorded on the video, and after the participants leave, they review the received material, collect the data and interpret it.
Case study
Method No. 2 of sociological research in modern science is cases, or special cases. It arose at the Chicago School in the early twentieth century. In the literal translation from English, case study means "case analysis." This is a kind of research where the object is a specific phenomenon, event or historical person. Researchers pay close attention to them in order to be able to predict in the future the processes that may take place in society.
This method distinguishes three main approaches:
- Nomothetical. A single phenomenon is reduced to a general one, the researcher compares what happened with the norm and concludes how likely the mass spread of this phenomenon is.
- Ideographic. A single is considered unique, the so-called exception to the rule, which cannot be repeated in any social environment.
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Which method of sociological research the scientist will choose depends on the problem of studying, but if this is not found, a new one can be created. Sociology is a young science that is still developing. Every year more and more new methods of studying society appear, which make it possible to predict its further development and, as a result, prevent the inevitable.