The classification of psychodiagnostic techniques allows you to evaluate the whole range of tools that are currently available to specialists in this field. In this article we will talk in detail about their types, characteristics, requirements and reliability. We give examples of the most successful and common.
Formalization level
The classification of psychodiagnostic techniques is based on the level of formalization. It is for him that they are divided into two key groups.
Formalized methods are characterized by the existence of a certain regulation, compliance with strict instructions during the examination. They allow you to collect information as quickly as possible, qualitatively and quantitatively by comparing it with each other. These primarily include questionnaires, tests, psychophysiological and projective techniques. It is worth noting that among them there are many experimental species.
Maloformalized methods are not subject to verification, but at the same time provide valuable information about the subject. Especially when the subject of study is mental phenomena that are weakly objectivizable. These are labor-intensive techniques, which include: conversation, observation, analysis of the products of activity.
Tests
In the classification of psychodiagnostic techniques according to the level of formalization, one of their main types is tests. These are usually short, standardized trials that are time limited. They are designed to establish qualitative and quantitative differences between individuals. The key difference between this methodology of psychodiagnostic research is the need to give the right answer to this question.
Signs of the test is the existence of a clear instruction that is able to rigidly determine the behavior of the subject. In addition, they should clearly perceive stimulus material, and the final assessment is always carried out according to the criterion of correctness.
In the classification of methods and techniques of psychodiagnostic examinations, it is important to highlight the differences in tests in form, purpose and content. In form they are group, individual, computer, hardware, verbal, blank and non-verbal.
In terms of purpose, tests are carried out to classify, select or distribute subjects. Finally, the content of the text is allocated to creativity, intelligence, to determine special or general abilities, achievements, personality characteristics. Here is the classification of psychodiagnostic methods and techniques related to tests.
During individual tests, the subject's communication with the experimenter occurs strictly one on one. This type of methodology of psychodiagnostic research has an undeniable advantage, which consists in the fact that it is possible to observe the person being tested, to record his answers, to evaluate how he relates to this examination.
During group tests, a large number of people participate in the tests simultaneously. In this case, the observance of uniformity during the conduct of this testing becomes especially important. Subject, blank, computer and hardware tests differ only in the material that is used.
The difference between non-verbal and verbal tests is the nature of the stimulus material.
Questionnaires
Now we will analyze the classification of psychodiagnostic techniques according to the formalized type. The second most popular after tests are questionnaires. The tasks in them are presented not only in the form of questions, but also statements. Moreover, they can reflect a person’s attitude to certain statements, the measure of his consent or disagreement with them. The ultimate goal of the questionnaire is not only to get an answer to the question, but also to agree or disagree with any statement. It is believed that this is one of the effective varieties of self-observation.
Among the features of this method, it is worth noting the possibility of indirect self-esteem, as well as the fact that the results are not evaluated on the basis of their correctness or incorrectness.
In particular, personality questionnaires are considered as standardized self-reports. Moreover, in form they can be both individual and group.
In the classification of psychodiagnostic techniques, questionnaires are distinguished, which are designed to obtain information about a person that will not be directly related to its psychological characteristics. They assume a fixed and rigid order of the form and content of the questions, the forms of answers are clearly spelled out. First of all, they are required to obtain biographical data on the history of human life.
Projective techniques
In the classification of methods and techniques of psychodiagnostic examinations, an important role is given to projective techniques. These techniques are designed to determine the personality traits of a person. Characteristic of them is a global and large-scale approach to assessing the personality as a whole, with minimal attention being paid to certain features.
Projective techniques were first developed by the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung. He believed that if one exerts an indirect effect on significant and important areas of a person’s experiences, then this can cause changes in his experimental activity. Therefore, Jung insisted that the subject independently interpret, complement and develop vague stimuli. Interestingly, the goal of these techniques is masked, which minimizes the ability to give those answers that are expected from the studied object.
A feature of this technique is that actions are not defined by strict standards, and stimulus conditions are not defined. Answers to questions make sense only in connection with personal significance. Therefore, responses are not judged by their correctness or incorrectness.
Psychophysiological techniques
Even considering briefly the classification of psychodiagnostic techniques, it is necessary to pay attention to psychophysiological models. With their help, it is possible to diagnose the natural features of a person, which are caused by the specific properties of his nervous system. They were developed by domestic psychiatrists, in particular, Nebylitsyn and Teplov. Their followers developed a whole scientific direction, known today as differentiated psychophysiology.
It is based on the hypothesis that the individual differences of each person are due to the specific properties of his nervous system. However, they do not predetermine the content of his mental development, finding its manifestation in the formal-dynamic characteristics of the behavior and psyche of the individual. For example, in his endurance, speed, efficiency, pace and rhythm of life. In general, they are deprived of an evaluative approach to the individual. These are hardware techniques that are exclusively individual in nature.
Maloformalized techniques
Among the classifications and types of psychodiagnostic methods and techniques, poorly formalized ones are distinguished. Among them, the oldest method in diagnosis, which is observation. He acquired decisive importance in the study of the psychological characteristics of minors.
In Russia, in the 1920s, the observation was actively used by Basov in his study of children's behavior. In particular, he developed the general principles of education and the very methodology of psychological observations. The main principle of his work was to maximize the fixation of external objective manifestations. He also paid attention to ensuring that the observation process was continuous, and the recording was selective.
It is noteworthy that the observer himself acted as a kind of measuring instrument. At the same time, Basov drew a clear line between scientific and pedagogical observation, noting that pedagogy is distinguished by passivity, randomness and non-purposefulness. At the same time, during scientific observation, the researcher poses a specific problem, he chooses the situation in which he will work, and the observation is based on a well-thought-out plan of the behavior and specific qualities of the object.
Specific and search observation is highlighted. If the goal is known and determined in advance, only the most necessary phenomena and facts should be selected.
The observation scheme for the object includes a system of units, as well as the form and method for describing this observed phenomenon. Before starting an observation, specific acts and parties that will be available for direct observation should be identified. In particular, we can talk about a unit of behavior.
When searching for surveillance, it is customary to use the entry form in the form of a diary or a continuous and detailed protocol. An exploratory observation refers to the categories in which specific observation units are recorded.
Specialists in the classification of methods of psychodiagnostic examinations distinguish three main types of observation.
- Chronological are carried out for a long time with constant and direct contact with the subject. There are also periodic, for which a predetermined certain time is allotted, and single.
- Observation conditions can be laboratory, field, as well as provoked in a natural environment.
- In relation to the observer to the object, his position can be hidden, open, turned on.
Among the main advantages of this method, it should be noted the ability to reliably assess the behavior of the individual in his natural environment. In the process of observation, it is possible to highlight the main and to separate it from the small. In addition, for its implementation does not require establishing contact with the subject and obtaining permission from him. Moreover, the observation has enough shortcomings. First of all, they are connected with the fact that the method requires a lot of time, it is very difficult to quantify the results, and they themselves often turn out to be too subjective.
Among the poorly formalized methods always distinguish a conversation or a survey. This method of collecting primary data is based on verbal communication. The characteristic of the psychodiagnostic technique is that the researcher must clearly know what questions to ask, how to ask, and make sure that the answers can be trusted. The main difficulty of this method lies precisely in the difficulty of formulating questions.
Surveys are conducted in writing or orally, in group or individual form. They can be single or multiple, formulated in an indirect or direct form, have a closed or open character.
The survey has a very definite goal: to reduce anxiety, create motivation for the examination, and obtain the necessary information. Be sure to prepare questions on the eve of the survey, draw up a conversation plan.
Finally, a method such as an interview demonstrates high efficiency. So in psychodiagnostics they determine the conversation conducted according to a certain plan. The interview may be standardized, partially standardized, or completely free. It is divided into clinical (this is a method of therapeutic conversation, which should help a person to realize internal conflicts, problems, hidden motives of behavior) and diagnostic, used to obtain information about personality traits.
As part of the content analysis, the researcher conducts a qualitative and quantitative analysis of material and documentary sources, which allows you to study the nature of human activity. To ensure that the information is as reliable as possible, a special method for analyzing the content has been developed. It appeared in the 20s of the XX century with the aim of processing media materials. For this, quantitative and semantic units were identified.
Operational classification
There is also an operational classification of psychodiagnostic techniques. In its framework, the degree of influence of researchers on the subject is distinguished. As a result, the result can be subjective or objective. In objective methods, this effect is minimized, while in subjective methods, everything (by and large) depends on the intuition of the psycho-diagnosis, its experience and qualifications.
Among objective methods, questionnaire tests, objective tasks, instrumental and instrumental behavioral methods, and objective scaling techniques should be distinguished. The latter suggest that subjects examine some concepts or objects. Due to this, a conclusion is drawn about the structure of its cognitive sphere, value guidelines.
Considering approaches to the classification of psychodiagnostic techniques, it should be noted that among the subjective techniques stand out standardized analytical observation, projective techniques, content analysis.
When classifying according to the degree of "objectivity-subjectivity", it is worth recognizing that there is no rigid boundary between the two classes. Each type in one way or another has subjective and objective features.
The technological classification of psychodiagnostic techniques involves binding to solving practical problems of a narrow class, which are aimed at diagnosing certain properties. In psychodiagnostics, this is called the method. Moreover, according to the technological classification of psychodiagnostic techniques, the method itself is determined by the affinity of technological procedures and techniques.
According to the Schwanzare method
There are all sorts of classifications of psychodiagnostic techniques by various authors. For example, according to J. Schwanzare.
It involves the distribution of all methods into four types.
- According to the materials used, Schwanzare distinguishes non-verbal and verbal, manipulative, so-called “pencil and paper” tests.
- By the number of indicators obtained - complex and simple.
- Tests with the possibility of various answers and only with the "correct" answers.
- Finally, in the classification of types of psychodiagnostic techniques according to Schwanzare, there is a type that differs in the mental activity of the subjects. It is divided into several categories: extrospective, introspective, executive and projective.
Requirements
The requirements for psychodiagnostic techniques are uniform and universal. They must be strictly adhered to, so that the result is reliable and reliable. Reliable methods should have four components: validity, reliability, uniqueness and accuracy.
Validity assesses how suitable a particular technique is for assessing precisely the psychological quality for which it is applied. Reliability demonstrates the ability to obtain a result based on constant and sustainable performance.
The accuracy of any technique reflects its ability to respond to any possible changes in an individual’s property that is being evaluated. Among the requirements for psychodiagnostic accuracy techniques, particular attention is paid to the fact that the experimental conditions can change from time to time in a completely unpredictable way. In this case, this accuracy can be compared with the accuracy of measuring technical instruments.
Finally, it is important that this method be unambiguous, cannot be interpreted in two ways. Reflected exactly those properties for which it was used.
Reliability
Let us dwell in detail on the reliability of these techniques. Its degree depends on a number of reasons, therefore, the establishment of factors that can reduce the accuracy of measurements becomes an important problem.
When trying to classify such factors, they are most often called among them the imperfection of the diagnostic method itself, the instability of the diagnosed property, the changing situation during the examination, the differences that are present in the behavior of the experimenter. Also, a condition may be exerted by the state of the subject himself, subjective moments in assessing the features of his behavior.
If in each of the factors to achieve the elimination of conditions that affect the reduction of measurement accuracy, it becomes possible to achieve an acceptable level of reliability. Recently, in modern research, reliability is increasingly determined on homogeneous samples. Reliability in this case may reflect the degree of consistency of two completely independently obtained indicators.
Determining the reliability of a measuring tool, a specific psycho-diagnostic technique depends on how it is composed. , , . , , - .
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If desired, you can choose another method of dividing tasks. But it is precisely the “splitting” into even and odd that seems most appropriate for most practitioners. In this case, the method is considered the most independent from the influence of external factors, that is, training, fatigue, etc. On this basis, the technique can be considered reliable if the final coefficient is not lower than 0.75.