The reason for many speech disorders lies in the malfunctioning of its central and peripheral organs. In order to identify them and determine the strategy of correctional work, you should know their structure, and functions, and interaction mechanisms. All this constitutes the physiological basis of speech, we will briefly consider them.
The structure of the speech apparatus
The physiological basis of speech is the subtle mechanism of interaction between its two departments - central and peripheral.
The central section of the speech apparatus is located in several structures of the brain:
- In the temporal part of the left hemisphere, the Wernicke center is located, where the analysis and discrimination of sounds, their quantity and sound order in words takes place.
- Brock's center (lower frontal gyrus, its posterior third) - through the nerve impulses directs the work of the speech muscles, due to which a smooth and consistent nature of their movements is carried out, as well as control of their position.
- The subcortical nuclei form the basis for the formation of congenital vocal reflexes, on the basis of which voluntary speech is formed. The subcortical nuclei of the extrapyramidal system regulate the functioning of the speech muscles. The smoothness of speech, its pace and emotionality, the pitch of the voice are realized by the subcortical-cerebellar nuclei.
- The coordination of movements and muscle tone of the voice, respiratory and articulation departments is ensured by the work of the cerebellum.
- The brain stem innervates the organs of the peripheral part of the speech apparatus.
The peripheral department includes three departments:
- respiratory (provides both physiological and specific speech breathing);
- voice, or phonation - forms a voice;
- articulatory - pronounces speech sounds.
The physiological basis of the methodology for the development of speech suggests that many causes of speech defects are the result of disturbances in the structure and interaction of the central and peripheral parts of the speech apparatus.
Speech mechanisms
Knowledge of the anatomical and physiological foundations of speech helps to understand the causes of its disorders.
Each speech act is provided not by a specific “specialized” group of brain cells, but by complex, interconnected and multi-level actions of the nervous system. Its mechanisms differ in their structure, in nature, in depth, depending on its most subtle nuances. That is, such a complex brain function as speech is provided by the complex interaction of its various parts. Moreover, their list changes significantly even when solving very similar speech problems. Understanding the physiological foundations of speech in psychology explains why, for example, the pronunciation of the same word will differ significantly if it is pronounced merrily or with sadness, with preliminary deliberation or spontaneously.
The main mechanisms of speech are:
- motivation and forecasting;
- utterance programming;
- transition from the plan of expression to its implementation;
- search for the desired epithet;
- utterance planning
- selection of the desired speech sounds;
- realization of speech.
Modern studies of speech activity show that the physiological foundations of speech and thinking are closely interconnected and are provided by the subtle interaction of many of their mechanisms. Some of them have not yet been studied.
The physiological basis of speech is much more complex than previously thought.
Speech Types
A careful analysis of the conversation of two or more people will help identify its following types:
- external - serves to communicate and transmit information from the speaker to the listener (or listeners);
- oral (monological, dialogic) - is carried out using sounds;
- internal - a person ponders, formulates and puts his thoughts into words;
- written - it is possible with the ability of a person to designate sounds with letters, with possession of a letter;
- gestural or kinetic.
In the process of verbal communication, a person can take an active position as a speaker or a passive listener.
Oral Speech
Most languages of the world have two forms.
Oral form: speech is heard, a person perceives it by ear and delivers.
Oral speech, compared to written, is less complete, since a lot of information is transmitted to the interlocutor with the help of interjections, pauses, emotional exclamations and non-verbal means - gestures, facial expressions, body movements, posture. Sentences of written ("book") speech are more complex in structure, they include complex turns, since it takes more time to think over the content of the text and the choice of speech means than in oral.
Writing
It is carried out using special letters, signs, perceived by the visual organs or tactilely, by touch. There are many carriers of written language - a person writes on paper, on glass, on sand, on asphalt, etc. Ancient letters reach us on clay tablets, on stone, on fabric, on birch bark.
A person who reads a lot and is used to public speaking (for example, a teacher, lecturer) has oral speech, which is more similar in its characteristics to written language. This is explained by the fact that, in preparation for communicating with the audience, he first carefully thinks through, writes, and then reproduces the written text with all its features aloud from memory.
Speech functions
The main speech function is communication, during which a number of other general functions of speech are carried out:
- regulatory - management of one’s own and another’s individual or collective behavior through direct or indirect requests, orders, instructions;
- planning - pre-thinking and logical alignment in time and space of their actions in the form of an oral or written plan (the housewife plans her affairs for tomorrow, the teacher draws up a lesson plan, the organizer writes a plan for a public event);
- an intellectual or cognitive function is carried out on the basis of a generalization of external information entering the human brain through the senses;
- nominative function: a word as a linguistic sign acts as a means of cognition, comprehension, generalization of material and non-material phenomena of the surrounding reality. By naming and describing the properties of a particular phenomenon, object, the word as it were replaces its real presence in the consciousness of the individual;
- the function of preserving historical public experience and national culture;
- emotional, expressive function is characteristic of oral speech, when the speaker expresses his feelings and emotions using a variety of, including non-verbal, means of communication.
The functions of speech are most often used not in isolation, but in combination. For example, in communication (communicative function), a person calls something (nominative), expresses his feelings (emotional), learns (cognitive), expresses his wishes or requirements (regulatory).
In addition to the aforementioned general speech functions, psycholinguistics distinguishes a large number of particular ones. For example, a person expresses his own desire, will (voluntary function): "I want to go to the cinema!" The appellate expresses an appeal to someone: “See you, friends!”. Using the names of something - streets, geographical objects (cities, seas, mountains, etc.) - a person uses the marking function. Even silence (can be dictated by various motives - religious, emotional, ethical) - is a kind of communicative function in the absence of external speech.
Speech Qualities
High requirements for its quality are dictated primarily by the care that the communicative function is not disturbed. Otherwise, misunderstanding or misinterpretation of misunderstood information leads to incorrect conclusions and undesirable actions.
Mandatory qualities of good oral speech, speech culture, are its moderate completeness and logic, concreteness, accuracy of the selection of vocabulary and expressive means, stylistic diversity, purity.
Negative qualities that make it both inaccessible to understanding and uninteresting to the listener, unattractive for communication:
- excessive brevity or excessive breadth;
- inconsistency of presentation due to the use of conflicting statements, phrases, incorrect construction of an oral or written text;
- stylistic monotony;
- the use of “verbal garbage” - vulgarisms, parasitic words, terms that are unnecessary or incomprehensible to the listener to make speech scientifically sound and solid;
- intonation inexpressiveness, monotony, incorrectly chosen pace of speech.
Such communicative qualities as a positive attitude to the interlocutor, a demonstration of respectful and patient attitude to his position and points of view on the problems discussed indicate the general cultural level of a person, cause a desire to communicate with him.
Writing qualities
Written speech, as well as oral, should also be understandable, logical, interesting, competent, emotional, of sufficient volume so that the reader understands the main thoughts and conclusions of the writer. If the author cites any facts, then they should be reasonable links to the source and accessible to the reader.
Typical shortcomings of writing, perceived as the illiteracy of the author, are poor vocabulary (lack of vocabulary), inaccurate usage, as a result of which thoughts are formulated vaguely; tautology, speech stamps, clericalism, stylistic, punctuation, grammatical errors, the presence of non-literary words and expressions.
The specific requirements for the quality of oral and written speech, its assessment largely depends on what function the speech currently performs, in what environment the voice contacts (private conversation or public speaking), which audience is intended for (children or adults), from topics and goals of communication, from the physical, emotional state of the communicants.
Speech Applications
Speech as the main means of communication is used in all spheres of human activity: in the domestic, scientific, aesthetic, industrial, political, religious, etc. The uniform conditions and rules of communication in each of these areas are specific, which leaves a special imprint on the content, quality, style of speech .
With a change in the sphere of activity or the living conditions of a person, his speech also undergoes changes: the dictionary, grammatical structure, subjects, style are updated.
However, the already formed speech stereotypes are very stable, since the mechanisms of speech are very stable. Thus, a former rural resident can easily be distinguished by speech from a native citizen, and a representative of mental labor from a worker.
Since the physiological basis of speech is a complex mechanism of interaction between its central and peripheral departments, disorders in the work of each of them can be the cause of speech disorders. This may impose restrictions on the choice of the field of human activity. For example, severe forms of stuttering are unacceptable for the teacher.