Universals are broad concepts that include many similar objects. That's how dictionaries are written. Almost nothing is clear from the definition. Let's put everything on the shelves and understand, finally, in this concept.
In philosophy
Examples of universal can be such concepts as “planet”, “plant”, “man” and many, many others.
Medieval philosophers discussed the question of whether universals actually exist as phenomena or things, and not just in words. If their existence is just our invention, then they exist only in our heads. For example, there is no such plant that combines all the plants on the earth (imagine what kind of "elkoromashopodorozhnik" would it be?). Specific types of plants, of course, exist, we see them and can feel them, but the very word "plant" was invented by people in order to combine flowers, herbs, trees, etc. common name.
Plato suggested looking at this question from a different angle. He believed that a common name exists in reality, but in the upper world invisible to the human eye. All concrete things are products of the universal. Medieval philosophers, adhering to the same concept, began to call themselves realists (after all, they believed that universals were real).
Philosophers who believed that universals are just names, names that unite a group of objects with similar characteristics, ranked themselves as nominalists (from Latin nomina translates as name, name).
The philosophy of the Middle Ages is realism. Nominalism appeared later, already at the sunset of the Middle Ages, on the "squeamish dawn" of the Renaissance.
Realism
Medieval realism had two forms: extreme and moderate.
Extreme realists claimed that universals appeared before things in a world inaccessible to perception. And all objects that exist on earth are derivatives of one or another universal - an eternal idea that generates things.
You probably already guessed that Plato was just an extreme realist.
Moderate realists adhered to the idea that universals are the foundation of any thing; they exist in the objects themselves. The world of universals and the world of objects are inseparable. Any thing contains some kind of universal that makes it a thing; without it, it would be just formless matter. Moderate realism stems from the ideas of Aristotle.
Nominalism
Nominalism takes the same forms as realism.
Moderate nominalists believed that universals remain in consciousness when things are no longer there. They remain there in the form of concepts - generalized names of objects. Concepts objectively do not exist (after all, we cannot pick them up, touch them), but it is with the help of words and terms that we can divide reality into different areas and spheres. So it becomes much easier to navigate and explore the world. Moderate nominalism is also called conceptualism (conceptus from Latin - representation, thought).
Extreme nominalists believed that general concepts are absolutely meaningless, they should not be talked about or thought about, because they do not exist. For example, we have a specific plant. We can see it, touch it, study the properties, in fact, like any other object that really exists. What is a plant in general? It’s just a word that doesn’t mean any real thing, so you should completely abandon such general concepts, using only the names of specific objects.
Universalism in philosophy is a very complex issue, the reflection of which can lead to unexpected conclusions. For example, think about whether friendship or love really exists. Is this all real, or does it just seem to us?
Language universals
In linguistics, universals are properties of all or most languages.
The following aspects are considered in the theory of language universals:
- Differences and similarities of the human language and the language of animals.
- Similarities and differences of languages ​​of different nations.
- Substantial categories in various languages ​​(for example, in all languages, the singular and plural are somehow indicated).
- Properties of language structures (for example, division into phonemes).
Types of language universals
There are a huge number of types (classes) of language universals.
- According to the nature of the statement, there are complete or absolute (not involving exceptions) and incomplete or statistical (allowing them). For example, complete universalism: all languages ​​have vowels. Incomplete universal: almost all languages ​​have nasal consonants.
- The logical form distinguishes between simple (asserting the existence of a phenomenon) and implicative universals (containing a condition emphasizing the interconnectedness of phenomena. An example of a simple universal: in every language there is a Y phenomenon. An example of an implicative universal: if there is Y in a language, then be X, and the first depends on the second.
- Quantitative and non-quantitative universals are distinguished. Quantitative report some quantitative pattern. For example: in any language the number of phonemes is not more than 85. All other universals are called non-quantitative.
- Depending on the language level of the term, symbolic, semantic, lexical, syntactic, morphological, phonological universals are distinguished.
Cultural
Cultural universals are concepts that express features of phenomena found in all cultures.
Many sources say that cultural universals include such characteristics of cultural experience that reflect the picture of the world of all peoples.
But the concept of a picture of the world is too vague, so let's say a little easier.
What researchers attribute to cultural universals is a common characteristic for representatives of any culture, no matter what continent they live on.
List of cultural universals
The American anthropologist George Murdoch in 1959 designated more than 7 dozen universals inherent in all cultures: from jewelry and gifts to sexual restrictions, punitive sanctions and funeral rites.
Why are there so many similarities between people who have never met each other? The answer is simple. Physically, all people have the same structure, therefore, everyone’s needs are identical, the environment poses the same problems for everyone, and their solutions are similar.
All people are born, and then die, therefore, the customs associated with death and birth are present in every culture. In any society, pregnant women, children and the elderly are present, therefore, universals associated with these categories of people are also present in any society.
Clyde Klakhon, an American sociologist and culturologist, proposed completing Murdoch’s list with two more universals. He believed that all peoples have the same way of thinking and values. In any society, it is forbidden to kill, to lie, and nowhere is it approved to inflict pain or suffering.
Cultural patterns
He shortened the list of universals, or rather, it was structured by American anthropologist Clark Wissler. He identified 9 patterns (patterns) of culture:
- a family;
- speech;
- mythology and scientific knowledge;
- art;
- religious practices;
- material similarities;
- government;
- own;
- war.
The culture of different peoples can be built around one of these topics, but others will still be visible or invisible in the life of any society.
The concept of universal is multifaceted and is applied in various fields and fields of science and life. Be that as it may, universals are always certain similarities. The Latin word universalis (common) has not in vain served as the etymological "father" of the term.