In the history of sociology, a prominent place is occupied by Talcott Parsons (1902-1979). Thanks to the activities of this professor at Harvard University, this discipline was brought to the international level. Parsons created a special way of thinking, which is characterized by the belief in the dominant role of scientific knowledge, which is reduced to the construction of systems and systematization of data. The main feature of this social thinker is the ability to differentiate the conceptual apparatus, as well as to identify shades of meanings in statements that have already managed to occupy their solid niche in the scientific world, and in the ability to invent more and more new and improved analytical schemes.
The researcher approached his ideas, thanks to which the theory of the social system of T. Parsons came to light, relying on knowledge in biology, as well as on the works of European sociologists and economists who worked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. His teachers and idols were A. Marshall, E. Durkheim, M. Weber and V. Pareto.
main idea
Parsons' theory was an alternative to the Marxist understanding of the paramount importance of revolution in the global transformation of the world. The work of this scientist is most often assessed as "difficult to understand." However, behind the palisade of complex argumentation and abstract definitions, one big idea can be traced to Parsons theory. It lies in the fact that social reality, despite its inconsistency, complexity and immensity, has a systemic character.
T. Parsons was a staunch supporter that the foundation of scientific sociology was laid at the moment when all the existing connections between people began to be considered by scientists as a single system. The founder of this approach to building society was K. Marx.
In his theory of social action, Parsons built a new theoretical structural-functional model. He described it in his writings under the names:
- "Social system";
- "The structure of social action";
- "The social system and the evolution of action theory."
The central idea of the theory of social action of T. Parsons was the idea of the presence of a certain state of society, when consent dominates the conflict, that is, there is consensus. What does this mean? This indicates the organization and ordering of social actions and the entire social system as a whole.
In the theory of Parsons, a conceptual scheme is built. Its core is the process of interaction of various social systems. Moreover, it is colored by personal characteristics and limited by the culture of people.
Parsons theory also considers social order. According to the author, it contains a number of interrelated meanings. Among them is the idea that there is no accident in the behavior of each individual. In all human actions there is complementarity, coherence, reciprocity, and, therefore, predictability.
If you carefully study the social theory of T. Parsons, it becomes clear that the author was primarily interested in problems related to changes and destruction of public order. A Harvard professor was able to answer questions that once worried O. Comte. This scientist in his works on "social statics" focused on the self-preservation, stability and inertia of the social order. O. Comte believed that society is able to resist external and internal trends aimed at changing it.
The theory of T. Parsons is called synthetic. This is due to the fact that it is based on various combinations of factors such as value consent, individual interest and coercion, as well as on inertial models of the social system.
In Parsons' social theory, conflict is seen as the cause of disorganization and destabilization of society. Thus, the author has identified one of the anomalies. Parsons believed that the main task of the state is to maintain a conflict-free type of relationship between all the elements that make up society. This will ensure equilibrium, cooperation and mutual understanding.
Let us briefly consider the theory of the social system of T. Parsons.
Fundamental concepts
Parsons' action theory examines the boundaries that exist in people's actions. Working on his work, the scientist used concepts such as:
- an organism that is the biophysical basis of an individual's behavior;
- an action that is normatively regulated, purposeful and motivated behavior;
- figure expressed by the empirical system of actions;
- a situation by which a zone of the external world is significant for a person;
- a social system in which there is one or more people between whom interdependent actions take place;
- orientation to the situation, that is, its significance for the individual, for his standards and plans.
Relationship Objects
The societal scheme considered in Parsons theory includes the following elements:
- Social objects.
- Physical objects. These are collectives and individuals. They are means and, at the same time, conditions for the implementation of actions by social objects.
- Cultural sites. These elements are holistic representations, symbols, systems and ideas of beliefs that have consistency and regularity.
Action items
Any figure, according to Parsons, always relates the situation to his goals and needs. In this case, the motivational component is connected. This is due to the fact that in any situation, the main goal of the activist is to receive a “reward”.
For action theory, the motive is not of primary importance. In this case, it is much more important to consider the experience of the actor, that is, his ability to determine the situation for organizing the optimal impact on it. In this case, not just a reaction should follow. The actor needs to develop his own system of expectations, taking into account the features of the elements of situations.
However, sometimes it can be much more complicated. So, in social situations, it is important for the leader to consider those reactions, the manifestation of which is possible from other individuals and groups. This should also be taken into account during the selection of a variant of one's own action.
In the process of social interaction, symbols and signs that carry a certain meaning begin to play a significant role. They become a means of communication for leaders. Thus, cultural symbolism also enters into the experience of social action.
That is why, in the terminology of Parsons theory, the personality is an organized system of orientation of the individual. At the same time, along with motivation, those values that serve as constituent elements of the “cultural world” are also considered.
Interdependence
How is the system considered in T. Parsons theory? In his works, the scientist puts forward the idea that any of them, including social, has interdependence. In other words, if any changes occur in one part of the system, this will certainly affect it as a whole. The general concept of interdependence in Parsons social theory is considered in two directions. Let's consider each of them in more detail.
Contributing factors
What makes up the first of two areas of interdependence in society? It represents those conditions that contribute to the formation of a hierarchy of determining factors. Among them:
- Physical conditions for the existence (life) of a person. Without them, it is impossible to conduct any activity.
- The existence of individuals. Justifying this factor, Parsons gives an example with aliens. If they exist within another solar system, then they are biologically different from humans, and, as a result, lead a social life different from earthly life.
- Psychophysical conditions. They are at the third stage of the hierarchy and are one of the necessary conditions for the existence of society.
- The system of social values and norms.
Controlling factors
In the theory of Parsons' social system, the second direction of interdependence, which takes place in society, is also widely disclosed. It is represented by a hierarchy of management and control factors. Adhering to this direction, one can approach the consideration of society from the point of view of the interaction of the two subsystems. Moreover, one of them contains energy, and the second contains information. What are these subsystems? The first of them in T. Parsons’s theory of action is economics. After all, it is this side of public life that has a high energy potential. At the same time, the economy can be controlled by people who are not involved in production processes, but who are organizing other people.
And here the problem of ideology, norms and values, allowing to control society, is of no small importance. They implement a similar function in the subsystem (sphere) of management. But this raises another problem. It relates to unplanned and planned management. T. Parsons believed that in this case the dominant role is played by political power. It represents the generalizing process by which it is possible to control all other processes taking place in society. Thus, government is the highest point of the cybernetic hierarchy.
Social Subsystems
The theory of Parsons systems distinguishes in society:
- The organization of political power. This institution is necessary to ensure control over what is happening on the territory of the state.
- The education and socialization of every person, starting from an early age, as well as the exercise of control over the population. This subsystem has acquired particular importance at present in connection with the problem of information aggression and domination.
- The economic basis of society. It finds its expression in the organization of social production and in the distribution of its product between individuals and segments of the population, as well as in the optimal use of public resources, primarily human resources.
- The totality of those cultural norms that are embodied in institutions. In a slightly different terminology, this subsystem is the maintenance of cultural institutional patterns.
- Communication system.
Social evolution
How does Parsons theory view society ? The scientist is of the opinion that social evolution is one of the elements of the development of living systems. In this regard, Parsons argues that there is a connection between the emergence of humans, regarded as a biological species, and the emergence of societies.
According to biologists, people belong to only one species. That is why Parsons concludes that all communities have common roots, while going through the following stages:
- Primitive. This type of community is characterized by the presence of homogeneity of its systems. Social relations are based on religious and kinship relations. Each member of such a society plays the role prescribed to him by society, which, as a rule, depends on the gender and age of the individual.
- Advanced primitive. In this society there is already a division into political, religious and economic subsystems. The role of the individual in this case increasingly depends on his success, which comes with luck or with acquired skills.
- Intermediate. In such a society, a further process of differentiation takes place. It affects systems of social action, causing the need for their integration. There is a written language. In this case, literate people are separated from everyone else. Human values and ideals are freed from religiosity.
- Modern. The beginning of this stage was laid in ancient Greece. At the same time, a system emerged that is characterized by social stratification, which is based on the criterion of success, as well as the development of a supportive, integrative, goal-oriented and adaptive subsystem.
Prerequisites for the survival of society
In the theory of Parsons action, society is considered as an integral system. The scientist considers her main criterion self-sufficiency, as well as the presence of a high level of self-sufficiency to her environment.
When considering the concept of society, Parsons assigned an important place to certain functional prerequisites, to which he attributed:
- adaptability, that is, the ability to adapt to environmental influences;
- maintaining order;
- purposefulness, expressed in the desire to achieve goals in relation to the environment;
- integration of individuals as active elements.
As for adaptation, Parsons made repeated statements about it, and in different contexts. In his opinion, it is the functional condition that any social system must meet. Only in this case will they become able to survive. The scientist believed that the need for adaptation of an industrial society is satisfied thanks to the development of its specialized subsystem, which is the economy.
Adaptation is the way in which any social system (state, organization, family) is able to manage its environment.
To implement the integration or balance of the social system, there is a centralized system of values.
When considering the prerequisites for the survival of society, Parsons developed the idea of M. Weber, who believed that the majority of the population adopted and approved those norms of behavior that are supported by effective state control.
Change social systems
A similar process, according to Parsons, is multifaceted and is quite complex. All factors affecting the change in the social system are independent of each other. Moreover, none of them can be considered as the original. A change in one of the factors will certainly affect the condition of everyone else. If the changes are positive, then we can say that they indicate the ability of society to implement the set values.
The social processes that occur in this case can be of three types:
- Differentiation. A striking example of this type of social process is the transition from the traditional management of peasant farming to industrial production that goes beyond the family. There was a differentiation in society and during the separation of higher education from the church. In addition, a similar type of social process takes place in modern society. It is expressed in the emergence of new classes and segments of the population, as well as in the differentiation of professions.
- Adaptive reorganization. Any group of people should be able to adapt to new conditions. A similar process occurred with the family. At one time, she had to adapt to her new functions, dictated by the industrial society.
- Transformation of society. Sometimes a society becomes more complex and differentiated. This happens due to the involvement of a wider range of social units. Thus, new elements appear in society with a simultaneous increase in internal ties. It is constantly becoming more complex, and therefore changes its quality level.