The system of education and science in the USSR was considered one of the best in the world. In the days of the Soviet Union, these industries were considered leading, because the development of the economy directly depended on them. Priority then were the technical and natural sciences. Thanks to science, the USSR was able to build up significant scientific and technical potential, consisting of material and spiritual resources, to improve production, health care, and social infrastructure.
Change of government
Without science in the USSR, further development of a new state system would have been impossible. The Bolsheviks, who replaced the monarchical tsarist regime, had the task of immediately increasing the level of literacy and culture of the population. Education became compulsory, but the shortage of qualified personnel was a real obstacle to the implementation of plans. The production forces and means of the Soviet Union were at zero. To raise the country from its knees after imperialist stagnation, researchers, engineers, and scientists of all industries were required. Only science could help in this: Institutes, laboratories, research centers were everywhere built in the USSR.
A breakthrough was also required in the defense sphere. Updating military equipment, defining new strategic tasks and retraining the army needed a competent scientific and practical approach.
If we talk about the humanitarian sphere, then materialistic natural science, the teachings of Marx and Engels, the followers of which became the leaders of the Soviet people, played the main role in the development of science in the USSR. The era of Lenin and Stalin lasted until the middle of the last century. The mass consciousness of capitalist society has become dominant, and the class struggle has been recognized as erroneous and inappropriate to the consciousness of revolutionaries. Thus, the development of science in the USSR required a radical revision of everything that was inherited from Tsarist Russia.
Transitional phase and the beginning of progress
The history of science of the USSR originates from the first months of the reign of Soviet power. Then it became clear to the intelligentsia that the scientific and cultural industries were at a new stage of development. Under Nicholas II, as with his predecessors, science was treated as something secondary, philanthropic. Only with the advent of socialism did science in the USSR of the 1920s acquire important state significance.
First of all, it was decided to create the required number of research institutes in a short time. Science and education in the USSR pursued the goal of searching for the new and discovering the unknown, while in imperial Russia its task was to replenish the personnel reserve of engineers and faculty. In the absence of qualified personnel, it was impossible to develop production, therefore, the Soviet government proposed a completely new point of view on the role of scientific and technical research in the life of the state.
Within a few years, a network of special scientific institutions was created. The first was the Moscow Institute of Physics, headed by P.P. Lazarev. Following this, a higher educational institution, Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute, headed by N. E. Zhukovsky and S. A. Chaplygin, was established, then the capital's All-Union Electrotechnical Institute was opened. Industry research centers began to appear in large regions. The faculties of soil science, biology, geology, chemistry were formed at existing institutes.
The development of science and technology in the USSR was facilitated by the generous financing of the state, which was interested in strengthening ties with national economic enterprises. To implement the state’s requests, the creation of a connecting economic link was important. In other words, the Soviet government managed to unite scientific minds and the economy with a single goal - the development and raising of the country, the desire to improve the standard of living of citizens.
Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union
The newly opened institutes became a kind of factory for new scientists who came to professional schools, technical schools, universities from student benches. The monopolist in the field of research was the USSR Academy of Sciences. During the years of the initial development of Soviet power, it radically changed its structure. In the 20s, the Academy of Sciences offered its assistance to the government, expressing its willingness to participate in various studies of industrial, socio-economic, energy, cartographic, agricultural and other fields. In response, the Government considered it necessary to provide financial assistance for the development of the Academy.
The main research institution planned to achieve a number of goals. One of them is to formulate a scheme for the rational distribution of industry on the territory of the Soviet Union, focusing on the proximity of raw materials with the least loss of labor resources. Moreover, it was planned to place production facilities based on the degree of processing of raw materials.
At that time, the rational decision of the Government was the creation of large industrial trusts in a monopoly of production concentrated in the hands of several major organizations. The ability to independently supply the main types of raw materials should have been the prerequisite for the development of the industrial sector. Particular attention was paid to the electrification of industrial equipment, the use of electricity in agriculture. To obtain electric energy with minimal extraction and delivery costs, low-grade economically viable fuel (peat, coal) was used.
Having the means and available capabilities, the Academy of Sciences compiled ethnographic reports, maps of the location of large deposits of natural resources. It is impossible to list all the achievements of science in the USSR at the beginning of the last century. For example, a commission was created to simplify the spelling of the Russian language, a calendar reform was carried out. In addition, it was during this period that the Kursk magnetic anomaly was examined, which contributed to the discovery of iron ore deposits, and thanks to the study of the Kola Peninsula led by Academician A.E. Fersman, it led to the discovery of apatite-nepheline deposits.
Small laboratories and classrooms quickly turned into independent institutes and faculties, which were faced with new tasks. The former Academy, reminiscent of a deserted museum, archive, library under the emperor — anything but the Academy, turned into the largest research complex.
Repression against scientists
Despite the enthusiasm, in the early years of the USSR, science and technology developed under conditions of strict isolation by capitalist states. The Soviet Union was practically cut off from the outside world. Few scientific books and magazines were published domestically, the pace of technological progress was unhurried. One of the few industries that remained popular during this period was biology.
The science of the USSR in 30 years was subject to severe restrictions and persecution. A striking example of this is classical genetics. Representatives of this scientific industry faced a fierce misunderstanding of the state. Some scientists adhered to the theory of the French researcher Lamarck that a person is able to inherit the habits of his parents. However, in the 30s, the authorities advocated the prohibition of classical genetics as a scientific direction. Then they spoke of it as "fascist science." Scientists involved in research in this direction, began to search.
In the late 30s, many leading scientists were arrested and shot. For example, N. Vavilov was accused of anti-Soviet activity, and later a death sentence was imposed on him, subsequently commuted to 15 years of hard labor. Some scientists were sent to Siberian camps, others were executed (S. Levit, I. Agol). There were those who, under pain of reprisals, abandoned their scientific views and radically changed their field of activity. Moreover, a written statement sealed with a personal signature was considered proof of deviation from previous ideas.
The plight of Soviet geneticists was not limited to the persecution of the Stalinist regime. Some, in order to strengthen their position in society, denounced their comrades and acquaintances, accusing them of propagating pseudoscience. The negotiators acted consciously, realizing that scientific opponents can not only be isolated from the scientific community, but also physically destroyed. However, not worrying about the immoral side of their misconduct, they confidently climbed the career ladder.
The main scientific directions of the first half of the twentieth century
At the same time, it is worth noting that some scientists still managed to avoid persecution and even continue to do what they love. Despite crowding and problems, creative work developed in a peculiar way. Science during the USSR gave an impetus to those types of industry that, due to technical imperfections and backwardness, were in a frozen state before the October Revolution. The greatest breakthrough was achieved in the electrical and optical-mechanical field. Interestingly, until the overthrow of the king in the country, no one manufactured electric incandescent lamps. Optics was in the same deplorable state: there were no specialists in the country who could understand optical devices.
By the end of the first half of the last century, the country was able to fully supply the domestic market with lamps of its own production. Private workshops of optics, which were branches of foreign manufacturers, were closed, and they were replaced by qualified graduates of their own universities (professional optics-computers, designers) who managed to overcome difficulties and bring the optical glass industry to a new level. The chemical industry, mechanical engineering, wood processing industries, food and light industries have also successfully developed.
Science during the Great Patriotic War
After the attack of fascist Germany, there was an urgent need for new military equipment, the development of which was done by the best engineers. From 1941 to 1945, arms factories worked continuously, without days off. Particular attention was paid to the creation of new artillery mounts. Soviet scientists reduced the time to develop and introduce new weapons. For example, the 152-mm howitzer has proven itself, but few know that this gun was designed and manufactured in just a couple of weeks.
Almost half of the types of small arms were put into mass production during the war. Tank and anti-tank artillery almost doubled its caliber, and such indicators as armor penetration, fuel consumption, and firing range were also improved. By 1943, the Soviet Union of the USSR prevailed over the Germans in the number of field artillery guns produced per year.
Soviet tanks in combat characteristics and today surpass the analogues of other states. Speaking about the development of science during the years of the USSR, one cannot but say about the design of aircraft and aircraft engines. The most numerous and popular was the IL-2. During World War II, more than two dozen fighters and attack aircraft entered mass production. By all criteria, they had an undeniable superiority over Nazi aircraft.
Discoveries in other areas
Not only the military industry was developing, the practical engineers did not leave their work on research in the metallurgical sphere: it was during the Second World War that the method of high-speed steel melting in the open-hearth furnace was invented. Active geological activity was carried out and, it is worth saying, it was thanks to this that scientists were able to explore new deposits of iron ore in Kuzbass, additional places of accumulation of oil and molybdenum ores in Kazakhstan.
In 1944, another significant event took place for the science of the USSR. Historical importance is attributed to the first version of the atomic bomb, first created in the Soviet Union. In addition, scientists have successfully mastered biology, medicine and agriculture. New breeding varieties were discovered, the most effective methods for increasing yield indicators were applied.
Scientists of that period (N. Burdenko, A. Abrikosova, L. Orbeli, A. Bakulev and other world famous names) introduced the latest methods and means of treating wounded soldiers into medical practice and made a number of discoveries: instead of absorbent cotton, cellulose was used; the properties of turbine oils laid the basis for some therapeutic ointments, etc.
Post-war inventions
The USSR Academy of Sciences established many research branches. Subordinate research centers have appeared in all republics of the Union, including Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. The work of the faculties of nuclear physics was in full swing in each department. The Soviet government, despite the devastation in the postwar years, did not spare funds for the development of science and technology. In the USSR, all scientific centers received the latest research equipment. To study the atomic nucleus, scientific centers were opened in the Far East and the Urals. At their disposal were the most advanced instruments for the implementation of atomic programs.
In order to stimulate scientists and inspire them with new discoveries, since 1950 the state began annually awarding the Lenin Prize. The expansion of the material base of Soviet science was facilitated by the continued support of I.V. Stalin. Also, according to researchers, Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov, the closest associate of the leader, managed to exert a direct influence on science and technology in the USSR. The most outstanding successes of Soviet scientists should be listed. For example, it was the USSR that became the first state in the world to use atomic energy for peaceful purposes. In the 50-60s, the first jet engines, quantum generators, intercontinental ballistic installations were created. The era of space exploration has begun - the first flight was made by Yu. A. Gagarin in 1961.
The leading research centers conducted theoretical and experimental studies in physics. In the electronic theory of the interaction of metals, new lines of research have been created. An invaluable contribution was made by scientists of that period who were developing in the field of nonlinear optics, which made it possible to study the degree of influence of external conditions on the nature of optical phenomena, based on the light intensity.
The second half of the last century saw the period of the most rapid development of science and culture in the USSR. Biologists, chemists, genetics, whose activities in the pre-war period were pursued, continued research in important areas. P. Lukyanenko bred the first varieties of winter wheat, and M. Volsky discovered the properties of living things to absorb nitrogen from the atmosphere. Academician N. Dubinin received the Lenin Prize for his work in developing theories of chromosomal mutations.
The most important achievements marked this period for Soviet medicine. The treatment of cardiovascular diseases has reached a new level - the first successful heart surgeries have been performed. During this period, the first effective drugs for tuberculosis, polio and other dangerous infections were created.
Domestic Science Model: General Provisions
The jump in the science and culture of the USSR, which occurred during the period of the existence of this state, is difficult to overestimate. At the same time, the organizational side of domestic science had its drawbacks:
- the orientation of a powerful scientific complex primarily on the implementation of defense programs and the buildup of military power of the state;
- lack of technology of double standards that would allow to use the achievements of the defense industry in civilian manufacturing sectors;
- decentralization of the scientific community, disunity;
- the priority of large specialized scientific institutions in the industrial sectors of science, which required the use of a huge amount of resources;
- the mismatch between the financing of research institutes and the national economic needs for scientific and technological developments;
- state ownership of research institutions;
- isolation from the global scientific community.
The period of the decline of Soviet science is considered the end of the 80s. Since the adoption of the decision of the Central Committee of the CPSU on the transfer of research institutes to self-financing, which was adopted in 1987, the crisis began. Any work of scientists was recognized as a product of intellectual activity and paid, like any other product. The scientific community began to pay for scientific and technical products on a contractual basis, while there was no support from the state. Radical renovation required equipment, facilities, personnel potential. In the last years of the existence of the USSR, experts noted that the state of the technological basis of the national economic sectors was significantly inferior to Western countries.
Conclusion
The breakthrough that science achieved during the entire existence of the USSR can be called the most cardinal in the entire history of our country. After the October Revolution, a course was set for the formation of the scientific potential of the state, which neither the Stalinist five-year plans, nor the years of repression, nor hunger, nor war could prevent. The science of the USSR has become an independent diversified field, differing from foreign confident development simultaneously in all directions. Soviet researchers tried to keep up with the demands of the authorities and worked for the good of the country's economy.
Scientists set themselves two main objectives: to bring the economy to a new level and strengthen the country's defense. Several lived Soviet decades have become fundamental to the history of science in modern Russia.
Undoubtedly, scientific and technological progress in the USSR was facilitated by the desire of the state leadership to develop and increase existing achievements, discover new inventions in order to reduce the gap and surpass foreign countries. To solve the tasks set by the party and the government, huge investments of budget funds were required. State support for the research industry is one of the reasons for the rise of science in the period of the USSR.