The emergence of science in our current view is a relatively new process that requires constant study. In the Middle Ages, such a concept did not exist, since social conditions did not contribute to the development of science. The desire to give all existing objects and phenomena a rational explanation arose in the XVI-XVII centuries, when the methods of cognition of the world were divided into philosophy and science. And this was only the beginning - with the passage of time and a change in people's perception, non-classical science partially replaced classical, and then post-non-classical science arose.
These teachings partially replaced the concepts of classical science and limited its scope. With the advent of non-classical science, many discoveries significant for the world have occurred, and the introduction of new experimental data has arisen. The study of the nature of phenomena has moved to a new level.
The definition of non-classical science
The non-classical stage of the development of science began at the end of the XIX - the middle of the XX century. It became a logical continuation of the classical movement, which during this period underwent a crisis of rational thinking. This was the third scientific revolution, striking in its global nature. Non-classical science suggested understanding objects not as something stable, but passing them through a peculiar cut from various theories, methods of perception, and principles of research.
An idea arose that crossed out the whole process of natural science: to perceive the nature of an object and phenomena not for granted, as it was before. Scientists proposed to consider them abstractly and accept the truth of different explanations, because in each of them there may be a grain of objective knowledge. Now the subject of science was studied not in its unchanged form, but in the specific conditions of existence. Studies of one subject took place in various ways, so the final results could differ.
The principles of non-classical science
The principles of non-classical science were adopted, which were as follows:
- The rejection of the excessive objectivity of classical science, which suggested that the subject be perceived as something unchanging, independent of the means of its knowledge.
- Understanding the relationship between the properties of the object of study and the feature of the actions carried out by the subject.
- The perception of these relations as a basis in determining the objectivity of the description of the properties of an object and the world as a whole.
- The adoption in research of the totality of the principles of relativity, discreteness, quantization, complementarity and probability.
Research as a whole has moved on to a new multifactorial concept: the rejection of isolation of the subject of research in order to “clean the experiment” in favor of a comprehensive review in dynamic conditions.
Features of the introduction of science
The formation of non-classical science completely changed the regular order of perception of the real world:
- In most teachings, including natural science, non-classical science, philosophy began to play a significant role.
- More time is devoted to studying the nature of the subject, the researcher uses different methods and traces the interaction of the subject in different conditions. The object and subject of research have become more interconnected.
- The interconnectedness and unity of nature of all things has been strengthened.
- A certain regularity has been formed, based on the causality of phenomena, and not only on the mechanical perception of the world.
- Dissonance is perceived as the main characteristic of objects in nature (for example, disagreements between the quantum and wave structures of simple particles).
- A special role is given to the relation of static studies to dynamic ones.
- The metaphysical way of thinking has been replaced by a dialectical, more universal one.
After the introduction of the concept of non-classical science in the world, there were a lot of significant discoveries dated from the late XIX - early XX century. They did not fit into the established positions of classical science, and therefore completely changed the perception of the world of people. We will get acquainted with the main theories of this time further.
Darwin's Theory of Evolution
One of the results of the adoption of non-classical science was the great work of Charles Darwin, for which he collected materials and studies from 1809 to 1882. Now almost all theoretical biology is based on this teaching. He systematized his observations and found out that the main factors in the process of evolution are heredity and natural selection. Darwin determined that the change in the characteristics of a species in the process of evolution depends on certain and uncertain factors. Certain ones develop under the influence of the environment, that is, under the same influence of natural conditions on most individuals, their characteristics change (thickness of the skin or wool, pigmentation and others). These factors are adaptive in nature and are not passed on to future generations.
Uncertain changes also occur under the influence of environmental factors, but occur randomly with some individuals. Most often inherited. If the change was useful to the species, it is fixed in the process of natural selection and transmitted to the next generation. Charles Darwin showed that evolution must be studied using a variety of principles and ideas, conducting research and observation of various nature. His discovery dealt a significant blow to one-sided religious ideas about the universe of that time.
Einstein's Theory of Relativity
In the next significant discovery, the methodology of non-classical science played a major role. We are talking about the work of Albert Einstein, who in 1905 published the theory of the relativity of bodies. Its essence was reduced to the study of the motion of bodies moving relative to each other at a constant speed. He explained that in this case it is wrong to perceive an individual body as a frame of reference - it is necessary to consider objects relative to each other and take into account the speed and trajectory of both objects.
In Einstein's theory, there are 2 main principles:
- The principle of relativity. It states: in all generally accepted reference frames moving relative to each other with the same speed and constant direction, the same rules will apply.
- The principle of the speed of light. According to it, the light speed is the highest, it is the same for all objects and phenomena and does not depend on the speed of their movement. The speed of light remains unchanged.
Fame for Albert Einstein brought a passion for experimental sciences and rejection of theoretical knowledge. He made an invaluable contribution to the development of non-classical science.
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle
In 1926, Heisenberg developed his own quantum theory, which changes the attitude of the macrocosm to the familiar material world. The general purpose of his work was that characteristics that the human eye cannot visually observe (for example, the motion and trajectory of atomic particles) should not be included in mathematical calculations. First of all, because the electron moves both as a particle and as a wave. At the molecular level, in any interaction between an object and a subject, changes in the movement of atomic particles occur, which cannot be traced.
The scientist undertook to transfer the classical point of view about the motion of particles into a system of physical calculi. He believed that in the calculations should only use quantities that are directly related to the stationary state of the object, the transitions between states and visible radiation. Based on the correspondence principle, he compiled a matrix table of numbers, where each value was assigned its own number. Each element in the table has a stationary or non-stationary state (in the stage of transition from one state to another). Calculations, if necessary, should be carried out based on the number of the element and its state. Non-classical science and its features greatly simplified the calculation system, which was confirmed by Heisenberg.
The Big Bang Hypothesis
The question of how the Universe appeared, what happened before it and what will happen after, has always worried and now worries not only scientists, but also ordinary people. The non-classical stage of the development of science has opened one of the versions of the emergence of civilization. This is the famous theory of the Big Bang. Of course, this is one of the hypotheses of the emergence of the world, but most scientists are convinced of its existence as the only true version of the appearance of life.
The essence of the hypothesis is as follows: the entire Universe and all its contents arose simultaneously as a result of the explosion about 13 billion years ago. Until that time, nothing existed - only an abstract compact ball of matter, having infinite temperature and density. At some point, this ball began to expand rapidly, a gap occurred, and that Universe appeared that we know and are actively studying. This hypothesis also describes the possible causes of the expansion of the Universe and explains in detail all the phases that followed the Big Bang: the initial expansion, cooling, the appearance of clouds of ancient elements, which laid the foundation for the formation of stars and galaxies. All matter existing in the real world was created thanks to a gigantic explosion.
Rene Thom's catastrophe theory
In 1960, the French mathematician Rene Thom expressed his theory of catastrophes. The scientist began to translate into a mathematical language phenomena in which a continuous effect on matter or an object creates an intermittent result. His theory allows us to understand the origin of change and sudden leaps in systems, despite its mathematical nature.
The meaning of the theory is as follows: any system has its own stable state of rest, in which it occupies a stable position or a certain range of them. When a stable system is exposed from outside, its initial strength will be directed toward preventing this impact. Then she will try to restore her original position. If the pressure on the system was so strong that it cannot return to a stable state, a catastrophic change will occur. As a result, the system will adopt a new steady state that is different from the initial one.
Thus, practice has proved that there are not only non-classical technical sciences, but also mathematical ones. They help in understanding the world no less than other teachings.
Postclassical Science
The emergence of post-non-classical science was due to a big leap in the development of means of obtaining knowledge and their subsequent processing and storage. This happened in the 70s of the XX century, when the first computers appeared, and all the accumulated knowledge had to be converted into electronic form. The active development of comprehensive and interdisciplinary research programs began; science gradually merged with industry.
This period in science has indicated that it is impossible to ignore the role of man in the subject or phenomenon being studied. The main stage in the advancement of science was the understanding of the world as a holistic system. There was a focus on the person not only in the choice of research methods, but also in the general social and philosophical perception. In post-nonclassical studies, complex systems capable of independently developing, and natural complexes, headed by a person, became objects.
An understanding of integrity was taken as a basis, where the whole universe, biosphere, man and society as a whole represent a single system. Man is inside this holistic unit. He is exploring part of it. In such conditions, the natural and social sciences have become much closer, their principles are captured by the humanities. Non-classical and post-non-classical science made a breakthrough in the principles of knowing the world in general and society in particular, made a real revolution in people's minds and methods of research.
Modern science
At the end of the 20th century, a new breakthrough in development occurred and modern non-classical science began to develop. Artificial neural connections are being developed that have become the basis in the formation of new smart computers. Machines could now solve simple problems and independently develop, moving on to solving more complex tasks. The human factor is also included in the systematization of databases, which helps determine the effectiveness and identify the presence of expert systems.
Non-classical and post-non-classical science in a modern generalized form have the following characteristics:
- Active dissemination of ideas about community and integrity, about the possibility of independent development of an object and phenomenon of any nature. The concept of the world as a whole developing system is strengthened, which at the same time has a tendency to instability and chaos.
- Strengthening and widespread dissemination of the idea that changes in parts within the system are interconnected and conditioned by each other. Summarizing all the processes existing in the world, this idea laid the foundation for understanding and researching global evolution.
- The use of the concept of time in all sciences, the researcher’s appeal to the history of the phenomenon. Propagation of development theory.
- Changes in the choice of the nature of research, the perception of an integrated approach in the study as the most correct.
- The fusion of the objective world and the human world, eliminating the difference between the object and subject. A person is inside the system under study, and not outside.
- The realization that the result of any method operated by non-classical science will be limited and incomplete if only one approach is used in the study.
- The spread of philosophy as a science in all teachings. Understanding that philosophy is the unity of the theoretical and practical principles of the Universe, and without its realization, the perception of modern natural science is impossible.
- The introduction of mathematical calculations in scientific theories, their strengthening and the growth of abstract perception. An increase in the importance of computational mathematics, since most of the research results are required to be presented in numerical form. A large number of abstract theories led to the fact that science has become a kind of modern kind of activity.
In modern studies, the characteristics of non-classical science indicate a gradual weakening of the rigid framework that limits the previously informative nature of scientific discussions. Preference in reasoning is given to the non-rational approach and the inclusion of logical thinking during experiments. At the same time, rational conclusions remain equally significant, but are perceived abstractly and are subjected to repeated discussion and rethinking.