Logic is one of the most ancient subjects, standing next to philosophy and sociology and being an essential general cultural phenomenon from the very beginning of its occurrence. The role of this science in the modern world is important and multifaceted. Those who have knowledge in this area can conquer the whole world. It was believed that this was the only science capable of finding compromise solutions in any situation. Many scholars attribute discipline to a branch of philosophy, while others, in turn, refute such a possibility.
Naturally, over time, the orientation of logical research changes, methods improve and new trends arise that meet scientific and technical requirements. This is necessary because every year the society is faced with new problems that cannot be solved with outdated methods. The subject of logic studies the thinking of a person from those patterns that he uses in the process of knowing the truth. In fact, since the discipline we are considering is very multifaceted, it is studied using several methods. Let's look at them.
The etymology of logic
Etymology is a section of linguistics, the main purpose of which is the origin of the word, its study in terms of semantics (meanings). “Logos” in Greek means “word”, “thought”, “knowledge”. Thus, we can say that logic is an object that studies thinking (reasoning). However, the psychology, philosophy and physiology of nervous activity, one way or another, also study thinking, but can we say that these sciences study the same thing? Quite the contrary - in a sense, they are opposite. The difference between these sciences is the way of thinking. Ancient philosophers believed that human thinking is diverse, because he is able to analyze situations and create an algorithm for performing certain tasks to achieve a specific goal. For example, philosophy as an object is rather just reasoning about life, about the meaning of being, while logic, in addition to idle thoughts, leads to a certain result.
Reference Method
Let's try to look at the dictionaries. Here the meaning of this term is somewhat different. From the point of view of the authors of encyclopedias, logic is a subject that studies the laws and forms of human thinking in order to know the surrounding reality. This science is interested in how “living” true knowledge functions, and in search of answers to their questions, scientists do not turn to each specific case, but are guided by special rules and laws of thought. The main task of logic as a science of thinking is to take into account only the way of obtaining new knowledge in the process of cognition of the surrounding world, without linking its form with specific content.
Principle of logic
The subject and meaning of logic is best viewed with a specific example. Let us take two statements from various fields of science.
- “All stars have their own radiation. The sun is a star. It has its own radiation. "
- Any witness must tell the truth. My friend is a witness. My friend must tell the truth.
If you analyze these judgments, you can see that in each of them the two arguments explain the third. Although each of the examples belongs to different fields of knowledge, the way of linking the components of the content in each of them is the same. Namely: if an object has a certain property, then everything related to this quality has a different property. Result: the item in question also has this second property. These causal relationships are usually called logic. This relationship can be observed in many life situations.
Let's turn to the history
To understand the true meaning of this science, you need to know how and under what circumstances it arose. It turns out that the subject of logic as a science arose in several countries almost simultaneously: in ancient India, in ancient China and in ancient Greece. If we talk about Greece, then this science arose during the decomposition of the tribal system and the formation of such layers of the population as merchants, landowners and artisans. Those who ruled Greece, infringed on the interests of almost all segments of the population, and the Greeks began to actively express their positions. In order to resolve the conflict peacefully, each of the parties used its arguments and arguments. This provided an incentive for the development of a science such as logic. The subject was used very actively, because it was very important to win the discussions in order to influence decision-making.
In ancient China, logic arose during the golden age of Chinese philosophy, or, as it was also called, the period of "struggling states." Like the situation in Ancient Greece, a struggle broke out between the wealthy strata of the population and the authorities. The former wanted to change the structure of the state and cancel the transfer of power in a hereditary way. During such a struggle, in order to win, it was necessary to gather as many supporters as possible around you. However, while in ancient Greece this served as an additional incentive for the development of logic, in ancient China it was quite the opposite. After the kingdom of Qin became dominant, and the so-called cultural revolution took place, the development of logic at this stage
e stopped.
Given that in different countries this science arose precisely during the struggle, the subject and significance of logic can be described as follows: it is a science of the sequence of human thinking, which can positively influence the solution of conflict situations and disputes.
Main subject of logic
It is difficult to single out one definite meaning, which as a whole could characterize such an ancient science. For example, the subject of logic is the study of the laws of deriving correct certain judgments and statements from certain true circumstances. This is how Frederick Ludwig Gotlob Frege characterized this ancient science. The concept and subject of logic was also studied by Andrei Nikolaevich Shuman, a well-known logician of our time. He believed that this is a science of reflection, which explores various ways of thinking and models them. In addition, the object and subject of logic is, of course, speech, because logic is carried out only through conversation or discussion, and it does not matter whether out loud or “to oneself”.
The above statements indicate that the subject of the science of logic is the structure of thinking and its various properties that separate the sphere of abstract-logical, rational thinking - forms of thinking, laws, the necessary relationships between structural elements and the correctness of thinking in order to achieve truth.
Truth search process
In simple terms, logic is the thought process of searching for truth, because on the basis of its principles a process of searching for scientific knowledge is formed. There are various forms and methods of using logic, and all of them are combined into the theory of deriving knowledge in various fields of science. This is the so-called traditional logic, in the framework of which there are more than 10 different methods, but the main ones are still considered the deductive logic of Descartes and the inductive logic of Bacon.
Deductive logic
We all know the deduction method. Its use is somehow connected with such a science as logic. The subject of Descartes logic is a method of scientific knowledge, the essence of which lies in the strict deduction from certain provisions that have been previously studied and proved of new ones. He managed to explain why, since the initial statements are true, then the deductions are also true.
For deductive logic, it is very important that there are no contradictions in the original statements, since in the future they can lead to incorrect conclusions. Deductive logic is very accurate and does not tolerate assumptions. All the postulates that are used are usually based on verified data. This logical method has the power of persuasion and is used, as a rule, in the exact sciences, such as mathematics. Moreover, the deductive method is not called into question, but the very method of finding the truth is studied. For example, the well-known Pythagorean theorem. Is it possible to question its correctness? On the contrary, it is necessary to learn a theorem and learn to prove it. The subject "Logic" studies this particular direction. With its help, with knowledge of certain laws and properties of the subject, it becomes possible to bring out new ones.
Inductive logic
We can say that the so-called inductive logic of Bacon practically contradicts the basic principles of deductive. If the previous method is used for the exact sciences, then this one is used for the natural, in which logic is needed. The subject of logic in such sciences: knowledge is obtained through observation and experimentation. There is no place for accurate data and calculations. All calculations are made only purely theoretically, with the aim of studying an object or phenomenon. The essence of inductive logic is as follows:
- Carry out constant monitoring of the object being investigated, and create an artificial situation that could theoretically arise. This is necessary to study the properties of certain objects that cannot be learned in natural conditions. This is a prerequisite for the study of inductive logic.
- On the basis of observations to collect as many facts as possible about the investigated object. It is very important to pay attention to the fact that since the conditions were created artificially, the facts can be distorted, but this does not mean that they are false.
- Summarize and systematize the data obtained during the experiments. This is necessary to assess the situation. If there is insufficient data, then the phenomenon or object must again be placed in another artificial situation.
- Create a theory in order to explain the data obtained and predict their further development. This is the final stage, which serves to summarize. The theory can be compiled without taking into account the actual data obtained, however, nevertheless, it will be accurate.
For example, based on empirical research on natural phenomena, vibrations of sound, light, waves, etc., physicists have formulated the proposition that any phenomenon that has a periodic nature can be measured. Of course, for each phenomenon, separate conditions were created and certain calculations were carried out. Depending on the complexity of the artificial situation, the evidence was significantly different. This is what made it possible to prove that the periodicity of the oscillations can be measured. Bacon explained scientific induction as a method of scientific knowledge of cause-effect relationships and a method of scientific discovery.
Causal relationship
From the very beginning of the development of the science of logic, much attention was paid to this very factor, which affects the entire research process. Causation is a very important aspect in the process of studying logic. The reason is a certain event or object (1), which naturally affects the occurrence of another object or phenomenon (2). The subject of science, logic, formally speaking, is to clarify the causes of this sequence. Indeed, from the foregoing, it turns out that (1) is the cause of (2).
You can give an example: scientists who study outer space and the objects that are there, discovered the phenomenon of the "black hole". This is a certain cosmic body, the gravitational field of which is so large that it is able to absorb any other object in space. Now we find out the causal relationship of this phenomenon: if the gravitational field of any cosmic body is very large: (1), then it can absorb any other (2).
Basic logic methods
The subject of logic briefly studies many areas of life, but in most cases the information received depends on the logical method. For example, the analysis refers to the figurative division of the investigated object into certain parts, in order to study its properties. Analysis, as a rule, is necessarily associated with synthesis. If the first method shares the phenomenon, then the second, on the contrary, connects the resulting parts to establish the relationship between them.
Another interesting subject of logic is the method of abstraction. This is the process of mentally separating certain properties of an object or phenomenon in order to study them. All these techniques can be attributed to the category of methods of cognition.
There is also a method of interpretation, which is to know the sign system of certain objects. Thus, objects and phenomena can be given a symbolic meaning that will facilitate understanding of the essence of the object itself.
Modern logic
Modern logic is not a teaching, but a reflection of the world. As a rule, this science has two periods of formation. The first begins in the Ancient World (Ancient Greece, Ancient India, Ancient China) and ends in the 19th century. The second period begins in the second half of the 19th century and continues to this day. Philosophers and scientists of our time do not stop studying this ancient science. It would seem that all its methods and principles have long been studied by Aristotle and his followers, but every year logic as a science, a subject of logic, as well as its features continue to be investigated.
One of the features of modern logic is the distribution of the subject of research, which is due to new types and ways of thinking. This entailed the emergence of new types of modal logic such as change logic and causal logic. It was proved that such models are significantly different from those already studied.
Modern logic as a science is used in many areas of life, such as engineering and information technology. For example, if you look at how a computer works and works, you can find out that all the programs on it are executed using an algorithm where logic is involved in one way or another. In other words, we can say that the scientific process has reached the level of development where devices and mechanisms that work on logical principles are successfully created and put into operation.
Another example of the use of logic in modern science is control programs in CNC machines and plants. Here also, it would seem, an iron robot performs logically-constructed actions. However, such examples only formally show us the development of modern logic, because only a living creature such as a person can possess this way of thinking. Moreover, many scientists are still arguing whether animals can have logical skills. All research in this area comes down to the fact that the principle of action of animals is based only on their instincts. Only a person can receive information, process it and give the result.
Research in the field of science such as logic can continue for thousands of years, because the human brain has not been thoroughly studied. Every year, people are born more and more developed, which indicates the ongoing evolution of man.