Science biology includes a large number of subsections and subsidiary sciences. However, one of the youngest and most promising, useful for humans and their activities is microbiology. Relatively recently emerged, but rapidly gaining momentum in development, this science today itself has become the founder of such areas as biotechnology and genetic engineering. What is microbiology and how did the stages of its formation and development go? We will deal with this issue in more detail.
What is microbiology?
First of all, microbiology is a science. Volumetric, interesting, young, but dynamically developing science. The etymology of the word originates from the Greek language. So, "mikros" means "small", the second part of the word comes from "bios", which means "life", and the final part from the Greek. "logos", which translates as teaching. Now we can give a literal answer to the question of what microbiology is. This is the teaching of micro-life.
In other words, this is the study of the smallest living things that are not visible to the naked eye. Such unicellular organisms include:
- Prokaryotes (non-nuclear organisms, or lacking a nucleus):
2. Eukaryotes (organisms having a formed nucleus):
- unicellular algae;
- protozoa.
3. Viruses.
However, the priority in microbiology is given to the study of bacteria of various types, forms and methods of energy production. This is precisely the foundation of microbiology.
Science subject
The question that microbiology studies can be answered as follows: it studies the external variety of bacteria in shape and size, their impact on the environment and on living organisms, the methods of nutrition, development and reproduction of microorganisms, as well as their impact on human economic and practical activities.
Microorganisms are creatures that can live in a wide variety of conditions. For them, there are practically no limits on temperature, acidity and alkalinity, pressure and humidity. Under any conditions, there is at least one (and most often many) group of bacteria that can survive. Today, communities of microorganisms are known that populate completely anaerobic conditions inside volcanoes, at the bottom of thermal sources, in the dark depths of oceans, harsh conditions of mountains and rocks, and so on.
Science knows hundreds of types of microorganisms, which eventually add up to thousands. However, it was established that this is only a fraction of the diversity that exists in nature. Therefore, the work of microbiologists is very much.
One of the most famous centers in which a detailed study of microorganisms and all the processes associated with them took place was the Pasteur Institute in France. Named in honor of the famous founder of microbiology as the science of Louis Pasteur, this institute of microbiology has released from its walls a lot of remarkable specialists who made no less remarkable and significant discoveries.
In Russia, the Institute of Microbiology named after S.N. Vinogradsky RAS, which is the largest research center in the field of microbiology in our country.
Historical excursion into microbiological science
The history of the development of microbiology as a science consists of three main conditional stages:
- morphological or descriptive;
- physiological or cumulative;
- modern.
In general, the history of microbiology dates back about 400 years. That is, the beginning of the occurrence falls on about the XVII century. Therefore, it is believed that it is a fairly young science in comparison with other sections of biology.
Morphological or descriptive stage
The name itself suggests that at this stage, strictly speaking, there was simply an accumulation of knowledge about the morphology of bacterial cells. It all started with the discovery of prokaryotes. This merit belongs to the founder of microbiological science, the Italian Antonio van Levenguk, who had a sharp mind, a tenacious look and a good ability to think and summarize logically. Being also a good technician, he managed to carve out lenses that give an increase of 300 times. Moreover, Russian scientists could repeat his achievement only in the middle of the 20th century. And that is not by grinding, but by smelting optical fiber lenses.
These lenses served as the material through which Levenguk discovered microorganisms. Moreover, he initially set himself a task of a very prosaic nature: the scientist was interested in why horseradish was so bitter. Having rubbed parts of the plant and examined them under a microscope of its own production, he saw a whole living world of tiny creatures. It was in 1695. From then on, Antonio began to actively study and describe various types of bacterial cells. He distinguishes them only in form, however, and this is already a lot.
Levenguk owns about 20 manuscript volumes that describe in detail spherical, rod-shaped, spiral and other types of bacteria. He wrote the first work on microbiology, which is called "The Secrets of Nature, discovered by Anthony van Levenguk." The first attempt to systematize and generalize the accumulated knowledge on the morphology of bacteria belongs to the scientist O. Muller, who undertook it in 1785. From this moment, the history of the development of microbiology begins to gain momentum.
Physiological or cumulative stage
At this stage of the development of science, the mechanisms underlying the vital activity of bacteria were studied. The processes in which they take part and which without them are impossible in nature are considered. It was proved the impossibility of spontaneous generation of life without the participation of living organisms. All these discoveries were made as a result of the experiments of the great scientist-chemist, but after these discoveries there was also a microbiologist, Louis Pasteur. It is difficult to overestimate its importance in the development of this science. The history of microbiology would hardly have been able to develop so quickly and completely, if not for this brilliant person.
Pasteur's discoveries can be displayed in several main points:
- proved that the process of fermentation of sugary substances, familiar to people from ancient times, is due to the presence of a certain type of microorganism. Moreover, for each type of fermentation (lactic acid, alcohol, oil, and so on), the presence of a specific group of bacteria that carry it out is characteristic;
- introduced the pasteurization process in the food industry to rid food of microflora, causing them to rot and spoil;
- he owes the merit of increasing immunity to diseases by introducing a vaccine into the body. That is, Pasteur is the founder of vaccinations, it was he who proved that diseases are caused by the presence of pathogenic bacteria;
- destroyed the idea of aerobicity of all living things and proved that for the life of many bacteria (butyric acid, for example) oxygen is not needed at all, and even harmful.
The main indisputable merit of Louis Pasteur was that he proved all his discoveries experimentally. So that no one could have doubts about the validity of the results. But the story of microbiology, of course, does not end there.
Another scientist who worked in the 19th century and made an invaluable contribution to the study of microorganisms was Robert Koch , a German scientist who owes the merit of developing clean bacterial cell lines. That is, in nature, all microorganisms are closely interconnected. One group in the process of life creates a breeding ground for another, the other does the same for the third and so on. That is, they are the same food chains as in higher organisms, only within bacterial communities. As a result of this, it is very difficult to study a particular community, a group of microorganisms, because their sizes are extremely small ( 1-6 m or 1 μm) and, being in constant close interaction with each other, they do not lend themselves to careful study alone. Ideal was the opportunity to grow many identical bacterial cells of the same community under artificial conditions. That is, to get a mass of identical cells that will be visible to the naked eye and to study processes in which it will become much easier.
This is precisely the discovery that Koch made. He introduced into practice the cultivation of pure bacterial cultures on a nutrient medium, which is different for each community. He also belongs to merit in staining colonies of microorganisms and its individual participants. Robert Koch was the first to discover a tubercle bacillus (Koch bacillus), which is parasitic in animals and humans. This scientist used the method of infection of experimental animals with pathogenic (bacteria) bacteria in order to remove pure cultures of such microorganisms and developed methods of disinfection and control.
Thus, a lot of valuable information was accumulated about the life of bacteria, their benefits and harm to humans. The development of microbiology has gone even more intensively.
Modern stage
Modern microbiology is a whole complex of subsections and mini-sciences that study not only the bacteria themselves, but also viruses, fungi, archaea, and all known and newly discovered microorganisms. To the question of what microbiology is, today a very complete and detailed answer can be given. This is a complex of sciences that study the life of microorganisms, their application in practical human life in various fields and fields, as well as the influence of microorganisms on each other, on the environment and living organisms.
In connection with such an extensive concept of microbiology, the modern gradation of this science should be given in sections.
- The total.
- Soil.
- Water.
- Agricultural.
- Medical.
- Veterinary
- Cosmic.
- Geological.
- Virology.
- Food.
- Industrial (technical).
Each of these sections deals with a detailed study of microorganisms, their effects on the life and health of people and animals, as well as the possibility of using bacteria for practical purposes to improve the quality of life of mankind. All this in the complex is what microbiology studies.
The greatest contribution to the development of modern methods of microbiology, methods of breeding and cultivating strains of microorganisms was made by such scientists as Wolfram Zillig and Karl Stetter, Karl Wese, Norman Pace, Watson Creek, Pauling, Zuckerkandl. Among domestic scientists, these are such names as I. I. Mechnikov, L. S. Tsenkovsky, D. I. Ivanovsky, S. N. Vinogradsky, V. L. Omelyansky, S. P. Kostychev, Ya. Ya. Nikitinsky and F.M. Chistyakov, A.I. Lebedev, V.N. Shaposhnikov. Thanks to the work of these scientists, methods have been created to combat serious diseases of animals and people (anthrax, sugar mites, foot and mouth disease, smallpox, and so on). Ways were created to increase immunity to bacteriological and viral diseases, strains of microorganisms capable of processing oil, creating a mass of various organic substances in the process of life, cleansing and improving the environment, decomposing non-degradable chemical compounds, and much more were obtained.
The contribution of these people is truly invaluable, so some of them (I. Mechnikov) received the Nobel Prize for their work. Today, there are subsidiary sciences formed on the basis of microbiology, which are the most advanced in biology - these are biotechnology, bioengineering and genetic engineering. The work of each of them is aimed at obtaining organisms or a group of organisms with predefined properties convenient for humans. To develop new methods of working with microorganisms, to get the maximum benefit from the use of bacteria.
Thus, although the stages of development of microbiology are not numerous, they are very informative and full of events.
Methods for the study of microorganisms
Modern methods of microbiology are based on working with pure cultures, as well as using the latest technological advances (optical, electronic, laser, and so on). Here are the main ones.
- The use of microscopic technical means. As a rule, only light microscopes do not give a complete result, therefore, luminescent, laser and electronic are also used.
- Sowing bacteria on special nutrient media for the breeding and cultivation of absolutely pure colonies of cultures.
- Physiological and biochemical methods for analyzing the culture of microorganisms.
- Molecular biological methods of analysis.
- Genetic analysis methods. Today it has become possible to trace the family tree of almost every open group of microorganisms. This was made possible thanks to the work of Karl Wese, who was able to decipher the genome section of the bacterial colony. With this discovery, it became possible to build a phylogenetic system of prokaryotes.
The combination of these methods allows you to get complete and detailed information about any of the newly discovered or already discovered microorganisms and find them the correct application.
The stages of microbiology that it went through in its formation as a science did not always include such a generous and accurate set of methods. However, it is noteworthy that the experimental method is the most effective at any time; it was he who served as the basis for the accumulation of knowledge and skills in working with the microworld.
Microbiology in medicine
One of the most important and significant sections of microbiology for human health is medical microbiology. The subject of her study was viruses and pathogenic bacteria that cause severe illness. Therefore, medical microbiologists have a task: to identify a pathogenic organism, cultivate its clean line, study the features of life and the reasons for which the human body is harmed, and find a way to eliminate this action.
After a pure culture of the pathogenic organism is obtained, a thorough molecular biological analysis must be carried out. Based on the results, conduct a test of the resistance of organisms to antibiotics, identify the spread of the disease and choose the most effective treatment against this microorganism.
It was medical microbiology, including veterinary, that helped solve a number of urgent problems of mankind: vaccines were created against anthrax, rabies, erysipelas, equine sheep pox, anaerobic infections, tularemia and paratyphoid, it became possible to get rid of plague and parapneumonia, and so on.
Food microbiology
The fundamentals of microbiology, sanitation and hygiene are closely interconnected and generally unified. After all, pathogens are able to spread much faster and to a greater extent, when the conditions of sanitation and hygiene leave much to be desired. And first of all, this is reflected in the food industry, in the mass production of food.
Modern data on the morphology and physiology of microorganisms, the biochemical processes caused by them, as well as the influence of environmental factors on the microflora that develops in food products during transportation, storage, sale and processing of raw materials, avoid many problems. The role of microorganisms in the process of formation and change in the quality of food products and the emergence of a number of diseases caused by pathogenic and conditionally pathogenic species is very significant, and therefore the task of food microbiology, sanitation and hygiene is to identify and turn this role to the benefit of man.
Food microbiology also cultivates bacteria that can convert proteins from oil, uses microorganisms to decompose food products, and process many food products. Fermentation processes based on lactic acid and butyric acid bacteria give mankind many necessary products.
Virology
A completely separate and very large group of microorganisms, which today is the most poorly studied, are viruses. Microbiology and virology are two closely related categories of microbiological science that study pathogenic bacteria and viruses that can cause serious harm to the health of living organisms.
Virology section is very extensive and complex, therefore, it deserves a separate study.