The word "sociology" comes from the Latin "societas" (society) and the Greek word "hoyos" (teaching). It follows from this that sociology is a science that studies society. We offer you a closer look at this interesting area of knowledge.
Briefly about the development of sociology
Humanity at all stages of its history tried to comprehend society. Many thinkers of antiquity spoke of him (Aristotle, Plato). However, the concept of “sociology” was introduced into scientific circulation only in the 30s of the 19th century. He was introduced by Auguste Comte, a French philosopher. Sociology as an independent science was actively formed in Europe in the 19th century. The most intensively involved in its development were scientists writing in German, French, and English.
Founder of sociology and his contribution to science
Auguste Comte is the person who made sociology a science. The years of his life are 1798-1857. It was he who first spoke of the need to separate it into a separate discipline and substantiated such a need. This is how sociology came about. Briefly describing the contribution of this scientist, we note that, in addition, he first defined its methods and subject. Auguste Comte is the creator of the theory of positivism. According to this theory, when studying various social phenomena, it is necessary to create an evidence base similar to that of the natural sciences. Comte believed that sociology is a science that studies society only with reliance on scientific methods with which empirical information can be obtained. This, for example, methods of observation, historical and comparative analysis of facts, experiment, method of using statistical data, etc.
The emergence of sociology has played an important role in the study of society. The scientific approach proposed by Auguste Comte to his comprehension opposed the speculative reasoning about him, which at that time was proposed by metaphysics. According to this philosophical trend, the reality in which each of us lives is a figment of our imagination. After Comte proposed his scientific approach, the foundations of sociology were laid. She immediately began to develop as an empirical science.
Rethinking the subject matter
Until the end of the 19th century, the point of view on it, as on the identity of social science, dominated scientific circles. However, in studies conducted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the theory of sociology was further developed. It began to stand out, along with legal, demographic, economic and other aspects, and social. In this regard, the subject of science of interest to us gradually began to change its content. He began to boil down to the study of social development, its social aspects.
Contribution of Emil Durkheim
The first scientist who defined this science as specific, different from social science, was the French thinker Emile Durkheim (years of life - 1858-1917). It was thanks to him that sociology ceased to be regarded as a discipline identical to social science. She became independent, stood in a number of other social sciences.
Institutionalization of sociology in Russia
The foundations of sociology were laid in our country after the decision of the Council of People's Commissars was adopted in May 1918. It indicated that conducting research on society is one of the main tasks of Soviet science. In Russia, a sociobiological institute was founded for this purpose. The same year, the first sociological department in Russia was created at Petrograd University, headed by Pitirim Sorokin.
In the process of development in this science, both domestic and foreign, 2 levels stood out: macro- and microsociological.
Macro and microsociology
Macrosociology is a science that studies social structures: educational institutions, social, politics, families, economics in terms of their relationship and functioning. As part of this approach, people who are involved in the system of social structures are also studied.
At the level of microsociology, the interaction of individuals is considered. Its main thesis is that the phenomena in society can be understood by analyzing the personality and its motives, actions, behavior, value orientations that determine interaction with others. This structure allows you to define the subject of science as the study of society, as well as its social institutions.
Marxist-Leninist approach
A different approach has arisen in the Marxist-Leninist concept in understanding the discipline that interests us. The sociology model in it is three-level: empirical research, special theories, and historical materialism. This approach is characterized by the desire to fit science into the structure of the worldview of Marxism, to create links between historical materialism (social philosophy) and specific sociological phenomena. The subject of discipline in this case is the philosophical theory of the development of society. That is, sociology and philosophy have one subject. Clearly, this is the wrong position. This approach isolated the sociology of Marxism from the global process of developing knowledge of society.
The science of interest to us cannot be reduced to social philosophy, since the peculiarity of its approach is manifested in other concepts and categories that are correlated with verifiable empirical facts. First of all, its peculiarity as a science is the ability to consider social organizations, relations and institutions existing in society as subject to study using empirical data.
Other Science Approaches in Sociology
Note that O. Comte pointed to 2 features of this science:
1) the need to apply scientific methods in relation to the study of society;
2) the use of the data in practice.
In the analysis of society, sociology uses the approaches of several other sciences. Thus, the application of the demographic approach allows us to study the population and the activities of people associated with it. Psychological explains the behavior of individuals with the help of social attitudes and motives. The group or community approach is associated with the study of the collective behavior of groups, communities and organizations. The culturological studies human behavior through social values, rules, and norms.
The structure of sociology today determines the presence in it of many theories and concepts related to the study of individual subject areas: religion, family, human interactions, culture, etc.
Macrosociology Approaches
In the understanding of society as a system, that is, at the macro-sociological level, 2 main approaches can be distinguished. We are talking about conflict resolution and functional.
Functionalism
Functional theories first appeared in the 19th century. The idea of the approach itself belonged to Herbert Spencer (pictured above), who compared human society with a living organism. Like him, it consists of many parts - political, economic, military, medical, etc. At the same time, each of them performs a specific function. Sociology has its own special task associated with the study of these functions. By the way, the very name of the theory (functionalism) is from here.
Emil Durkheim proposed a detailed concept as part of this approach. It continued to develop R. Merton, T. Parsons. The main ideas of functionalism are as follows: society in it is understood as a system of integrated parts, in which there are mechanisms through which its stability is maintained. In addition, the need for evolutionary transformations in society is substantiated. Its stability and integrity are formed on the basis of all these qualities.
Conflict Theories
As a functional theory (with certain reservations), one can also consider Marxism. However, it is analyzed in Western sociology from a different perspective. Since Marx (his photo is presented above) considered the conflict between classes the main source of the development of society and carried out on this basis his idea of its functioning and development, such approaches received a special name in Western sociology - conflict theory. From the point of view of Marx, class conflict and its solution are the driving force of history. From this followed the need for the reorganization of society through revolution.
Among the supporters of the approach to the consideration of society from the point of view of the conflict, we can note such German scientists as R. Darendorf and G. Simmel. The latter believed that conflicts arise because of the instinct of hostility, which is exacerbated when a clash of interests occurs. R. Darendorf claimed that their main source is the power of some over others. Between those who have power and do not have it, a conflict arises.
Microsociology approaches
The second level, microsociological, developed in the so-called theories of interactionism (the word "interaction" translates as "interaction"). An important role in its development was played by C.H. Cooley, W. James, J. G. Mead, J. Dewey, G. Garfinkel. Those who developed interactionist theories believed that the interaction between people can be understood using the categories of encouragement and punishment - after all, this is what defines human behavior.
Role theory occupies a special place in microsociology. What is characterized by this direction? Sociology is a science in which the theory of roles was developed by such scientists as R.K. Merton, J.L. Moreno, R. Linton. From the point of view of this direction, the social world is a network of social statuses (positions) related to each other. It is they who explain human behavior.
The grounds of classification, the coexistence of theories and schools
Scientific sociology, considering the processes occurring in society, classifies it on various grounds. For example, when studying the stages of its development, the basis can be taken the development of technology and productive forces (J. Gelbraith). In the tradition of Marxism, the basis of classification is the idea of formation. Society can also be classified on the basis of the dominant language, religion, etc. The meaning of any such division is the need to understand what it represents in our time.
Modern sociology is built in such a way that different theories and schools exist on equal footing. In other words, the idea of a universal theory is denied. Scientists began to conclude that there are no hard methods in this science. However, the adequacy of the reflection of the processes taking place in society depends on their quality. The meaning of these methods lies in the fact that the phenomenon itself, and not the causes that gave rise to it, is given the main significance.
Economic sociology
This is the direction of social research, which involves analysis from the standpoint of the social theory of economic activity. Its representatives are M. Weber, K. Marx, V. Sombart, J. Schumpeter and others. Economic sociology is a science that studies the totality of social and economic processes. They can concern both the state or markets, and individuals or households. At the same time, various methods of data collection and analysis are used, including sociological ones. Economic sociology in the framework of the positivist approach is understood as a science that studies the behavior of any large social groups. However, she is not interested in any behavior, but in connection with the use and receipt of money and other assets.
Institute of Sociology (RAS)
Today in Russia there is an important institution belonging to the Russian Academy of Sciences. This is the Institute of Sociology. Its main goal is the implementation of basic research in the field of sociology, as well as applied research in this area. The institute was founded in 1968. Since that time, he has been the main institution of our country in such a branch of knowledge as sociology. His research is very important. Since 2010, he has been publishing the Bulletin of the Institute of Sociology, a scientific electronic journal. The total number of employees is about 400 people, of which approximately 300 are scientific researchers. Various seminars, conferences, readings are held.
In addition, the sociological faculty of GAUGN operates on the basis of this institute. Although only about 20 students a year are enrolled in this faculty, it is worth considering for those who have chosen the direction of sociology.