One of the most exciting stories in the history of the ancient world is the crisis of the republic and the transition to an empire in Rome. How dramatic this process was is evidenced by many written sources that have reached us, which tell about the civil wars that swept the republic, denunciatory speeches of speakers and mass executions. The history of the empire itself is also rich in events: being the strongest Mediterranean state at the beginning of its existence, it, having gone through several severe crises, fell as a result of the onslaught of German tribes at the end of the 5th century.
The last days of the republic
Everyone knows about the main events that preceded the establishment of an empire in Rome, from the 5th grade of high school. Once the citizens of Rome expelled the king Tarquinius the Proud and decided that never power in the city would not belong to one person. Power was exercised by two annually elected consuls and the Roman Senate. Under the republican system, Rome has come a long way from a relatively small city on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula to the center of a major power that conquered almost the entire Mediterranean. However, the vast territory created serious problems that the republican authorities were no longer able to cope with. One of these problems was the landlessness of small owners. The attempts of the Gracchus brothers to resolve this issue in the second half of the second century. BC e. were unsuccessful, and the reformers themselves were killed.
One of the consequences of the political struggle during the years of the Gracchus' activity was civil war. They are characterized by unprecedented bitterness, and the Romans themselves persistently exterminated each other. The coming to power of one or another dictator - Maria, Sulla, Caesar - was accompanied by the publication of transcripts. The person who got there was considered an enemy of Rome and could be killed without trial.
However, not everyone said goodbye to republican ideals. Under the slogan of restoring the old order, the senatorial elite organized a conspiracy against Julius Caesar. And although the lifelong dictator (actually the first monarch after Tarquin) was killed, the crisis of the republic was irreversible. The last of the civil wars ended with the victory of Octavian Augustus, who declared himself Princeps.
The first days of the empire
Establishment of an empire in Rome, according to a bloodthirsty tradition, was accompanied by new scriptures. One of the most famous victims was the speaker Cicero - a true Republican and an opponent of any form of dictatorship. But once at the top of power, Octavian took into account the mistakes of his predecessors. First of all, he preserved the formal attributes of the republic - the Senate and the national assembly; consuls and other officials are still elected.
But it was only a facade. In fact, Octavian concentrated all power in his hands. He formed the senate at his discretion, replacing those unwanted with faithful people, canceled the decrees of any official, using the right of absolute veto belonging to the former people's tribunes. Finally, Octavian led the armed forces.
At the same time, he avoided the magnificent title. If Caesar hastened to call himself consul, praetor, and emperor, then Octavian was satisfied with the title of princeps, that is, the first senator. From this point of view, the more correct term for the regime established in Rome is "principle". The title of emperor was historically given to commanders for military merits. Only with the passage of time did the title of emperor become associated with the bearer of supreme authority.
Dynasty Yuliev-Klavdiev
Monarchical power is most often associated with its inheritance. However, serious difficulties arose with this issue. The princesps did not have sons, and the people whom Octavian saw as his successors died before him. As a result, the first Roman emperor chose the stepson of Tiberius. To strengthen the relationship, Octavian married the heir to his daughter.
Tiberius became a continuation of the first dynasty of the empire of Rome - Yuliev-Klavdiev (27 BC - 68 AD). However, this term is controversial. Relations between emperors were based on adoptions and marriage unions. Blood kinship was rather the exception in Rome. The Roman Empire was unique also because there was no legal consolidation of the sole authority and mechanism of its inheritance. In fact, under favorable circumstances, the highest authority in principle could go to anyone.
First emperors
Ancient Roman historians not without pleasure report on the moral baseness of the successors of Octavian. The work of Suetonius "The Life of the Twelve Caesars" is replete with reports of the brutal killings of immediate relatives, conspiracies and betrayals, sexual debauchery of the rulers of Rome. The heyday of the empire, therefore, seems to be a process unrelated to the activities of the emperors.
It should be borne in mind that ancient historians, who were often contemporaries of the events described by them, did not particularly strive for objectivity. Their work is based on rumors and speculation, so every evidence needs to be verified. If we turn to the facts, it turns out that under the emperors of the Julius-Klavdiev dynasty, Rome finally consolidated its hegemony in the Mediterranean. The government of Tiberius has passed a number of important laws, thanks to which it was possible to establish effective provincial governance, stabilize tax revenues to the treasury and strengthen the economy.
The reign of Caligula (37-41), at first glance, did not bring anything good. The emperor’s favorite horse was appointed as a senator, he replenished the treasury with the property of state aristocrats, and then spent it on arranging not too pious festivities. However, all this can be seen as a manifestation of the struggle with the still existing supporters of the republic. But Caligula's methods did not meet with approval, and as a result of the conspiracy the emperor was killed.
Dynasty degeneration
"Uncle" Claudius, the object of numerous mockery of Caligula, was declared by the emperor after the death of his nephew. Under him, the power of the senate was again limited, and the territory of the empire of Rome increased due to conquests in Britain. Moreover, the attitude towards Claudius in society was controversial. At best, he was considered crazy.
After Claudius, Nero became emperor, the only possession of the fourteen years of rule of which was the famous phrase: "Which artist dies." Under Nero, the economy of Rome fell into decay, social contradictions intensified. Christian teaching became especially popular, and in order to control it, Nero declared the Christians to set fire to Rome. Many supporters of the new religion perished in amphitheaters.
Civil War 68-69
Like Caligula once, Nero turned all strata of society against himself. The Senate declared the emperor an enemy of the people, and he had to flee. Convinced of the senselessness of resistance, Nero ordered his slave to kill himself. The Yuliev-Klavdiev dynasty was interrupted.
The first civil war broke out in the Roman Empire. The presence of numerous applicants nominated by legions in various provinces led to the fact that 69 entered the history as the year of four emperors. Three of them - Galba, Oton and Vitelius - could not hold on to power. And if Othon, faced with the opposition of his power, committed suicide, then other applicants had worse. Galba was publicly torn to pieces by the Praetorian Guard, and the emperor's head was worn for several days through the streets of Rome.
Such a fierce struggle will subsequently become commonplace for the Roman Empire. In 69, a protracted struggle was nevertheless avoided. The winner was Vespasian, who founded the Flavian dynasty (69-96).
Board of Flavius
Vespasian and his successors managed to stabilize the situation in the country. After the reign of Nero and the Civil War, the treasury was empty, and the administration of the provinces fell into decay. To correct the situation, Vespasian did not disdain by any means. His most famous way to raise funds is to impose a tax on the use of public toilets. Vespasian replied to his son’s criticism about this: "Money doesn’t smell."
Under the Flavians, it was possible to put an end to the centrifugal tendencies that swept the provinces. In particular, the uprising in Judea was crushed, and the temple of the Jews was destroyed. But these successes actually led to the death of the dynasty.
Domitian (81-96), the last representative of the dynasty, considered it possible to return to the style of rule of the latter Yuliev-Klavdiev. Under him, an attack on the prerogatives of the senate began, and the princeps added the words "lord and god" to his title. Large-scale buildings (for example, the arch of Titus) drained the treasury, and discontent began to accumulate in the provinces. As a result, a conspiracy developed and Domitian was killed. As a successor, the Senate nominated Mark Kokcei Nerva, founder of the Antonin dynasty (96-192).
The transfer of power dispensed with internal upheavals. Society reacted to the death of Domitian indifferently: the forced killing of the princes from the very establishment of the empire in Rome has become a kind of norm. The lack of prerequisites for another civil war allowed the new emperor and his successor Trayan to pursue the necessary policies in an environment of stability.
The Golden Age of the Roman Empire
Historians at one time called Trajan the best of emperors. This is not surprising: it was during his reign that the heyday of the empire of Ancient Rome fell. Unlike its predecessors, who tried to keep the existing territories, Trayan last turned to offensive politics. Under him, the primacy of Rome was recognized by the Dacians who inhabited the territory of modern Romania. In memory of the victory over a serious adversary, Trajan established a column that has survived to this day. After this, the emperor ran into another enemy, which for many years caused serious trouble to Rome - the Parthian kingdom. The famous commander of the late republic, the winner of Spartacus Crassus, could not conquer Parthia. Failure ended and attempts to Octavian. Trajan was able to put an end to the age-old struggle.
Under Trajan, the highest point of power of Rome was reached. The heyday of the empire under its successors was based on the strengthening of the external borders of Adrian erected limes in the north - fortifications that impeded the penetration of barbarians) Moreover, it is already possible to observe some phenomena that will form the basis of the subsequent crisis: the provinces are becoming increasingly important. In addition, the empire is overwhelmed by the demographic crisis, so the share of barbarians in the legions is increasing.
III century crisis
The last outstanding emperor of the Antonin dynasty, Marcus Aurelius (161-180) died of the plague during a campaign against the barbarians. His son Commodus was nothing like his great ancestors. All his time he spent in the amphitheater, passing control of the country to the favorites. The result of this was a new explosion of social discontent, the conspiracy and death of the emperor. With the death of the last Antoninus, the centuries-old flowering of the empire of Rome also ceased. The fall of the state has become a reality.
The empire was overwhelmed by a severe crisis. The Severn dynasty that came to power tried in vain to fight centrifugal tendencies. But the economic independence of the provinces, the constant presence of legions in them led to the fact that Rome, the capital of the empire, was losing significance, and control over it did not mean control over the country. The 212 edict of Caracalla on granting citizenship to all inhabitants of the empire did not alleviate the situation. From 214 to 284, Rome was ruled by 37 emperors, and there were times when they ruled at the same time. Since they were nominees from the legions, they were called soldiers.
Dominate
The crisis ended with the coming to power of Diocletian (284-305). The fall of the empire of Ancient Rome, which seemed inevitable, did not happen, but at the cost of this was the establishment of a regime resembling eastern despotism. Diocletian did not accept the title of Princeps, instead he became the dominus - the master. The surviving republican institutions were finally abolished.
Civil wars have shown that managing an empire from Rome is no longer possible. Diocletian divided it among the three co-rulers, leaving behind the supreme power. In order to consolidate society, a religious reform was undertaken that established an official polytheistic cult. Other religions were forbidden, and their followers, especially Christians, were brutally persecuted. The successor of Diocletian Constantine (306-337) made a decisive turn in this regard, declaring Christianity the state religion.
The death of the Roman Empire
Reforms of Diocletian for some time delayed the fall of the empire of Ancient Rome. Hope, similar to what was under the Antonins, could not be expected. The aggressive policy was finally replaced by a defensive one, but the empire could no longer keep the barbarians from penetrating its territory. Increasingly, the authorities are forced to give the German tribes the status of federations, that is, to give them land for service in the Roman legions. And without that, insignificant funds in the treasury had to be given up at the mercy of the most aggressive German leaders.
The division of the empire into Western and Eastern was finally formed, and the latter was not always in a hurry to help the Western emperors. In 410, a Germanic tribe of Goths infiltrated Rome. "Eternal City" for the first time in its history was captured by enemies. And although this did not lead to the elimination of Roman statehood, she could not recover from this blow.
The fall of the empire of Rome became inevitable. The emperor became a nominal figure who did not have real power, barbarians ruled in the provinces. The territory of the state was rapidly decreasing. In the era of the empire, Rome achieved extraordinary power, but its fall was surprisingly ordinary. On September 4, 476, Odoacer, one of the German leaders, stormed Ravenna, where the young emperor Romulus Augustul was. The boy was deposed, and Odoacer sent the imperial insignia to Constantinople, the eastern emperor. According to established tradition, this year is considered the date of the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the end of the era of the Ancient World.
In fact, this line is conditional. The Roman Empire as an independent force has not existed since the Goths invasion of Rome. The fall of the empire lasted for half a century, but only because its existence seemed a certain necessity. When this imaginary necessity also disappeared, they got rid of the empire in one movement.