The 19th century was a turning point for Russia, when at the beginning of the century power passed to Alexander I after the regicide of Paul I, when science and education began to develop rapidly, which required major changes. All these changes of the 19th century can be divided into the first and second halves.
Russia on the threshold of the 19th century
The young emperor inherited a state that underwent significant changes compared with previous periods. There are several important factors that indicate the grandeur of the country:
- The territory has increased due to the annexation of Crimea, Kazakhstan, the Baltic states, Right-Bank Ukraine and Western Belarus. As a result of which, the population also became larger, about 40 million people, of which 90% were peasants. The urban population also increased, especially in St. Petersburg and Moscow, which, of course, influenced the development of science in the 19th century in Russia.
- The Romanovs became large owners and had some independence from other classes of the country.
- The budget has more than tripled compared to the 18th century.
However, at the time of the advent of Alexander I, Russia was a country where all modernization according to a catch-up plan was carried out at the expense of its own people, and very little time was devoted to science, education and culture.
The development of science in the first half of the 19th century
You can tell about the development of science in the first half of the century according to the results obtained by famous scientists for that period, thanks to which today you can see such outstanding achievements.
Science in the 19th century in Russia is, first of all, mathematics, physics and chemistry.
At Kazan University, professor of mathematics Nikolai Lobachevsky was able to develop a new theory in geometry, which was called "non-Euclidean". The doctor Nikolai Pirogov was able to take a far step in medicine, while studying surgery for a long time. He was able to use it in the war, for the first time using ether anesthesia and a plaster cast.
In physics, the main area of study at this time was electricity, and it was here that discoveries were made. Boris Jacobi discovered the method of electroplating, and then created several electric motors and telegraphs. And physicist Vasily Petrov was able to show how electricity can be used to illuminate and melt metal by examining the electric arc and charge in a rarefied gas.
A science such as astronomy also developed during this period, so in 1839 the Pulkovo Observatory was opened , where astronomer Vasily Struve worked, who discovered the concentration of stars in the plane of the Milky Way.
Schools, gymnasiums and universities
At the very beginning, science and education of the 19th century in Russia underwent changes, and already in 1803 a decree was issued to divide the whole country into 6 educational districts, each of which was to build a university. However, in 20 years, only three higher educational institutions were opened, including Moscow, Kazan and St. Petersburg universities. Nicholas I did not support the idea of education, and during his reign no university was opened. Moreover, he believed that the children of serfs should not be educated along with everyone.
A good education could be obtained, but only to nobles, in lyceums, such as Tsarskoye Selo near Petersburg and Demidov, which was in Yaroslavl.
The situation was better with technical schools. At the beginning of the century, only the Mining Institute was opened, a little later the Forest Institute appeared. Nicholas I had a good attitude towards engineering and military education, so technological institutes were opened under him in St. Petersburg and Moscow, as well as Artillery and Engineering Academies.
Education for women
A good trend was considered the continued education of women, which was laid under Catherine II, in order to raise good and kind wives and mothers. Therefore, institutes were opened in many cities for girls of noble origin: Nizhny Novgorod, Astrakhan, Saratov, Irkutsk, of course, Moscow and St. Petersburg.
Humanitarian knowledge
The humanities of the 19th century in Russia, in the first half, with a high public interest began to develop in history, and the Moscow Society of History and Antiquities was established. Also, interest was shown in general history and linguistics, including Slavic studies, Sinology, which served as the launch of the production of books and periodicals.
Publishing became very popular, and in 1809 68 magazines of various subjects and 9 newspapers were published. As a result of the opening and development of printing houses, translation activities appeared, and citizens began to get acquainted with foreign literature.
Russian literature is also worth mentioning when the country learned about Pushkin, Nekrasov and Turgenev. During this period, problems were raised such as the plight of a small person from the bottom, but at the same time, folk traditions were sung in oral and written form.
Science, education (19th century, second half, Russia)
The second half, when feudalism was replaced by capitalism, implied a higher level of development not only among literate people, but also among ordinary workers, and education should primarily concern those industries that are associated with ordinary life.
However, the development took place in difficult conditions, when feudalism was still preserved in some places, there was persecution by the autocracy, and Russian scientists, writers and artists had a very difficult time.
It is worth noting that the revolutionary movement helped science to advance far when Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov and Herzen fought for the time to free people from serfdom. All this prompted scientists to make great discoveries for the benefit of the people.
Famous scientists
The second half of the 19th century is characterized from the point of view of science as the development of the natural sciences, such as physics, mathematics, chemistry, zoology and geography. Such a demand was determined by the needs of life, the modernization of production and the desire of scientists to glorify the state with achievements and discoveries, so that such was the history of Russian science. The 19th century, first of all, was “presented” by such scientists as Pafnutiy Chebyshev, who tried to link the problems of mathematics with the natural sciences and made discoveries on the theory of machines and mechanisms.
A vivid representative of the scientific world was a woman, Sophia Kovalevskaya, who could not get a proper education in Russia and went abroad, where she received a doctorate in mathematical sciences. However, she represented Russia, and her writings were recognized worldwide.
In the 19th century, science in Russia achieved brilliant successes in physics, thanks to such scientists as Alexander Stoletov, who studied magnetism and photoelectric phenomena, and also was a teacher for thirty years, heading the department of Moscow University.
Separately, it is worth noting the Russian chemist-scientist Dmitry Mendeleev, who discovered the periodic law of chemical elements.
Education Reforms
After many factories and factories appeared in the country, which required competent people who could write, read, and understand cars, changes in education were required.
A series of reforms were carried out that helped create two-grade and four-grade elementary schools in church schools. Zemstvo elementary schools also opened, where there was a more extensive curriculum, and Sunday schools for adults who studied literacy after work.
Science in the second half of the 19th century in Russia required the expansion of the educational network in secondary and higher educational institutions. In cities (Tomsk, Odessa, Riga, Kharkov, Kiev) universities, technical institutions and several agricultural academies were opened.
But tsarism slowed down enlightenment, and even primary schools were too few, so Russia was in one of the last places in terms of literacy. By the end of the century, the literate population was only 28%, and among women it was only 17%.
Schools for women
As mentioned above, only representatives of the nobility in the first half of the century received at least some kind of education where they were taught languages, proper manners and housekeeping. In the 19th century, science in Russia was something unreal and incomprehensible for women, the main thing for them was to learn to read, write and express themselves beautifully.
Primary and secondary schools for ordinary women practically did not exist until the 60s. Educational institutions began to appear in the 70s, but very slowly, and admission to universities was completely closed for women of any class.
Thanks to the social movement, several female gymnasiums and medical courses were opened, but before the revolution of the 20th century, women were not in an equal position.
The development of the humanities of the 19th century in Russia
A peculiar feature for the country was that, against the background of the illiteracy of most of the population, there was a high rate of development of science, where there were outstanding discoveries for the whole world as a whole.
The main thing that has been done in the humanities is the creation of a collection of essays on the history of Russia from ancient times to the present time (second half of the 19th century), which was created by academician Sergei Solovyov in 29 volumes. This collection and today remains the most complete about the history of the country.
During this period, the well-known explanatory dictionary of Vladimir Dahl appeared, where more than 200 thousand words were collected. In addition to words, proverbs and sayings, as well as special terminology, were included in the book.
The writer A.N. studied Russian literature. Afanasyev, fame gained and the work of the Russian philosopher, who also studied ancient Russian literature and folklore, academician Buslaev.
Humanitarian science in the 19th century in Russia came under the influence of complex socialist processes, when there was political instability, a change of power was brewing, and people were looking for ways to further develop the country, as expressed in literature, which was divided into three areas: critical realism, proletarian literature and modernism .
Results of the 19th century
For Russia, the 19th century was rich in events, very diverse, heterogeneous and controversial in all spheres of life, starting with the life of peasants, who became free only at the end of the century, and ending with the reign of four tsars, where everyone succeeded in something, but in something it was a complete failure. However, the science of the first half of the 19th century in Russia, like the second, is characterized by the desire of scientists to achieve unprecedented heights, despite all the difficulties that impeded development. Throughout the century, discoveries have been made, thanks to which today technologies in all areas are at the highest level.