The process of ontogenesis is determined by successive changes in the body from lower to higher levels of life. There is a structural and functional improvement of the individual.
Ontogenesis studies are carried out in several scientific disciplines. So, for example, morphophysiological ontogenesis (formation of an organism) is an object of study of biological science. In turn, mental and social ontogenesis is studied in various fields of psychology (psychogenetics, age and child psychology, social and pedagogical psychology).
The concepts of phylogeny and ontogenesis
The term "phylogenesis" (Greek "phyle" - "species, genus, tribe", and "genos" - "origin") is used to denote the process of occurrence and historical development of a species. In psychological science, this is the development of the psyche of animals in the process of evolution, as well as the evolution of forms of human consciousness.
The concept of ontogenesis has a more particular meaning. This (in psychology) is the process of development of the psyche of an individual. In this case, we are talking about the permanent nature of development - from the birth of a person to the moment of his death. The concept of phylogeny and ontogenesis, psychological science borrows from biology, their author is the German biologist E. Haeckel.
Biogenetic law
Based on these concepts, together with F. MĂĽller, Haeckel formulates a biogenetic law (1866). According to him, each individual in the process of individual development (ontogenesis) in a short form goes through all the stages of development of its species (phylogenesis).
Subsequently, biogenetic law was severely criticized by the scientific community. So, for example, as a counterargument, the Academic Council of the University of Jena points to the fact that the human embryo lacks a tail and gill slits. Despite the support of biogenetic law by C. Darwin (who declared it the main proof of his evolutionary theory), the idea was regarded by the Academic Council as untenable, and its author was accused of scientific fraud.
Nevertheless, the biogenetic law and the idea of ​​recapitulation itself (lat. "Recapitalatio" - "concise, brief repetition of the former") had a significant impact on the development of biological science, including the development of evolutionary ideas. Biogenetic law also influenced the development of psychology. In the ontogenesis of the psyche of an individual, the experience of previous generations cannot but play a role.
The problem of the driving forces of mental development
A separate fundamental psychological problem is the question of what factors are leading in the development of the psyche, which determine its ontogenesis. This in psychology is determined by the concept of the driving forces of mental development. There are two main approaches to solving this problem - biogenetic (natural) and sociogenetic (social).
Proponents of the first direction emphasized the genetic factor (heredity), considering it the leading factor in the process of individual development of the psyche. Accordingly, the role of the social factor was minimized. Among the most famous representatives of the biogenetic approach are R. Descartes, FJ. Russo, G. Spencer, S. Hall, D. Baldwin.
The opposite, sociogenetic approach as the driving forces of mental development highlighted the social factor - the role of the public environment. Man, therefore, acts as a product of external (indirect) influence. The importance of the individual’s heredity was ignored by the proponents of this approach. Representatives - J. Locke, E. Durkheim, P. Janet.
The two-factor theory of the ontogenesis of the psyche
Attempts were also made to combine both factors - hereditary and social - to explain the psychic specificity of the concept of ontogenesis. This in psychology resulted in a third direction - the theory of two factors. The first researcher was V. Stern, who formulated the principle of convergence of two factors. According to this principle, the hereditary line in the development of personality intersects with the line due to its social environment (convergence occurs).
Accordingly, the ontogenesis of human psychology is carried out in the process of merging the internal and external conditions of the functioning of the psyche. For example, the innate instinct of the game will determine how and when the child begins to play. In turn, the material and process conditions will be determined by the current external environment.
Special methods were needed to identify the specifics of the ratio of external and internal factors that determine ontogenesis. In developmental psychology, this is a twin method.
Important Details
The twin method was based on a comparative analysis of the mental development of mono- and dizygotic twins. It was understood that if dizygotic twins (DZ - different heredity) in equal social conditions develop differently, therefore, the genetic factor is crucial. If development is at about the same qualitative level, the main factor is the social factor. With monozygotic twins (MoH - the same heredity), the situation is similar. Subsequently, the coefficients of differences between DZ and MZ twins living in different / identical conditions are compared. The twin method is actively used in psychogenetics.
Thus, the psychology of personality development in ontogenesis, according to the theory of convergence, is due to two axes:
- X-elements of heredity.
- Y-elements of the environment.
For example, the famous British psychologist G. Eisenck considered intelligence as a derivative of the external environment by 80%, and internal (hereditary) - only 20%.
The disadvantage of the two-factor theory of personality development is considered to be its limitedness resulting from the mechanical addition of hereditary and social indicators. In turn, ontogenesis is (in psychology) a more complex process, not reducible only to mathematical calculations. It is important to consider not only their quantitative ratio, but also the qualitative specificity. In addition, there is always room for individual differences in such patterns.
Psychoanalytic approach to the concept of "ontogenesis" in psychology
What is ontogenesis from the point of view of psychoanalysis? If in the previous theory we observed the convergence (convergence) of the axes of hereditary and social elements, then in the theory of Z. Freud the reverse process occurs. These factors are considered from the standpoint of confrontation, the source of which is the mismatch of the aspirations of the natural, instinctive component of the personality (“Id”, “It” - the unconscious) and social (“Super-Ego”, “Super-I” - conscience, moral standards).
When an individual is driven by hidden drives and desires, this is a manifestation of his natural, unconscious structure. An attempt to control these aspirations, rejection of them, condemnation, attempts to supplant them from memory is the work of the social component of the personality (the internalized system of values, norms and rules of behavior formed by the individual under the influence of the public environment).
This theory has also been repeatedly criticized by the scientific community, primarily for the sharp contrast between the biological and social components of the human person.
Analytical concept K.G. cabin boy
Returning to the idea of ​​recapitulation (biogenetic law), which we examined above, we can note similar points in the analytical psychology of the Swiss psychologist K.G. Cabin boy. It is a theory of the collective unconscious. Just as E. Haeckel saw in ontogenesis a brief repetition of phylogenesis, Jung considers the individual as a carrier of the mental experience of previous generations.
This experience is manifested in a concise form in the form of certain patterns of perception and understanding of reality - archetypes. Blocking the latter and the absence of their entry into the sphere of consciousness negatively affects the process of ontogenesis, causes a violation of the mental balance of the individual.
Ontogenesis and activity
The introduction of the category of activity, according to the domestic psychologist DB Elkonin, allows to a certain extent to solve the problem of highlighting the dominant factors in the ontogenesis of the psyche. The development process is, first of all, the activity of the subject itself, due to its objective activity.
As for hereditary and social factors, they act as conditions for development, but not in the role of its dominant. They do not determine the process of development of the psyche itself, but only its variations within the normal range.