US architecture with its four centuries of history demonstrates a wide range of styles and forms. The features of today's American construction have been shaped by many internal and external factors, resulting in a rich, innovative and eclectic tradition. Before modern U.S. architecture reached its engineering, technological, and design identity, it was preceded by a long period of projects that followed European architecture.
Progress in technology and materials
When Europeans settled in North America, they brought their architectural traditions and building technologies. Examples of this are America's oldest buildings. Construction depended on available resources. Wood and brick were the most common materials for the construction of buildings in New England, the Middle Atlantic, and the southern coast. That was until the end of the nineteenth century, when the architecture of the USA did not undergo significant external changes, which at first were perceived by the public as rather strange and ugly.
The dynamics of technogenic time required new architectural forms. However, previous materials and methods did not allow the construction of extremely tall buildings. After ten or twelve floors, the construction of the brickwork reaches the maximum possible height, since it faces problems of compression and the effect of lateral wind force. The technology for the construction of industrial buildings came to the rescue, where the supporting structure was metal, and glass occupied most of the walls for better lighting. Thus, the latest construction technology of the 20th century appeared, the result of which was the appearance of a skyscraper in US architecture. This method made it possible to construct structures of various shapes and sizes on the basis of actually welded metal. But before the new technology transformed the appearance of buildings and forever changed people's perceptions of architecture, construction in the United States went through a difficult evolutionary path.
Architecture of a new nation
In the 18th century, the Spanish, French and English colonial architecture in the USA was replaced by the Georgian style, which was used to build the homes of wealthy plantation owners and wealthy city merchants. In church buildings, the main features of the Georgian style were plastered brick or masonry and the only spire that is located at the entrance. American architects of this period stubbornly followed the canons of the Old World.
The Georgian style was at the height of fashion in England and North America when, in 1776, members of the Continental Congress published the Declaration of Independence of the Thirteen Colonies. After a long and hectic war, a new republic, the United States of America, was approved by the Paris Treaty of 1783. Despite the fact that it was a political break with English society and the state, the influence of the Georgian style on building design continued.
But the young republic was developing, social and commercial needs grew parallel to territorial expansion. From the year the Declaration was proclaimed - 1776 - and to the beginning of the 19th century, US architecture sought to emphasize the political, economic and cultural independence of the state with new forms in the construction of government, religious and educational buildings.
Federal style
In the 1780s, architectural forms in the United States began to depart from the standards of Georgian style, and a completely unique American genre of American building design appeared - the federal style. In the design of the new buildings of administrative and business institutions, classical columns, domes, pediments, following the example of ancient Rome and Greece, were used. Similar architectural elements, strict classical forms symbolized the birth of a new democratic nation.
Federal style was especially popular along the Atlantic coast from 1780 to 1830. Some famous examples:
- Massachusetts State House 1798 by architect Charles Balfinch, Massachusetts.
- Apartment buildings on Louisburg Square in Beacon Hill in Boston by architect Charles Balfinch.
- Hamilton Hall - 1805 John Gardiner-Pingry House in Salem, Mass., Architect Samuel MacIntyre.
- Old Town Hall in Salem Massachusetts 1816 - 1817.
The architecture of the USA of the 19th century, in addition to the federal style, is marked by two more popular trends, which were the revived architecture of ancient historical eras, as well as a large number of mixed trends.
American neo-Gothic
Since the 1840s, the neo-Gothic style has become popular in the United States. Great families of the east coast had huge estates and villas built in this direction. American neo-Gothic is also represented in church buildings, university complexes (Yale, Harvard). In New York, there is a beautiful example of American Gothic, an elegant synthesis of Cologne Cathedral and Notre Dame de Paris - St. Patrick's Cathedral Church in 1888, which is a historical monument of US architecture. The design and construction of this largest gothic cathedral in America was led by James Renkwick. The same architect also owns the construction of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington DC. Another prominent neo-Gothic architect in the United States was Richard Upgeon, who specialized in building rural churches in the north-east of the country, his main work being the Trinity Church in New York.
The style was successful and therefore existed in US architecture until the beginning of the 20th century; its elements can be observed in the design of some skyscrapers in Chicago and New York. The most typical examples of American neo-Gothic:
- 1838-1865 Lyndhurst apartment building built by architect Alexander Jackson Davis in Tarritown, New York;
- the tombstone of James Monroe, installed in 1858 at the Hollywood cemetery in Richmond, Virginia;
- State Prison, built between 1867-1876 in West Virginia at Munsville, architect James Renwick;
- St. Patrick's Cathedral, built between 1885-1888, New York, architect James Renwick;
- An example of collegiate Gothic is the University of Oklahoma in 1912, the architect Evans Halls.
Ancient greek revival
The strict and very symmetrical design of the Greek style attracted the attention of American architects in the first half of the XIX century. The government of the young state, free from British control, was convinced that America would become the new Athens, that is, a democratic country. Architect Latrobe, with students William Strickland and Robert Mills, received a government order for construction similar to Greek architecture, several banks and churches in large cities such as Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington DC. Also in several cities of the country several Capitol buildings were built not in the Roman, but in the Greek style, for example, in the Roles of North Carolina or Indianapolis Indiana. These structures with simple facades, continuous cornices and the absence of domes give the impression of strict organization, asceticism and the special greatness of buildings. Other examples of Greek style in the history of US architecture:
- The building of the New York Customs (First Federal Customs House), completed in 1842 in New York, designed by James Renwick.
- Ohio State Capitol at Columbus 1861 by architect Henry Walter.
- The Rosicrucian Fellowship Temple (Temple of the Brotherhood of the Rosicrucians), built in 1920 at the Oceanside of California, designed by Lester Kramer.
The Gilded Age and the End of the 1800s
After the American Civil War and until the turn of the 20th century, many different styles appeared in US architecture. These movements can be classified as the late Victorian period, Queen Anne's style, Shingle style (tiled style), Stick style - a variant of the Neo-Gothic, embodied in wooden architecture. All these trends were called “Victorians” because of their similarities with European architectural trends from the late British period of Queen Victoria. The most influential American architects of this period can be called Richard Morris Hunt, Frank Furness, Henry Hobson Richardson.
In that American period of rampant wealth and luxury, industrial and commercial tycoons commissioned mansions reproducing European Renaissance palaces. One example is the Biltmore Estate (Biltmore Estate) next to Asheville in North Carolina. It was built by architect Richard Morris Hunt for George Washington Vanderbilt in the style of the Chateau during the French Renaissance in the image of the Chateau de Blois, the French royal castle. The estate has an area of 16 622.8 square meters. meter to this day is the largest private mansion in the United States.
Background of the appearance of skyscrapers
At the end of the nineteenth century in the United States, all buildings could be divided into two types according to their purpose. On the one hand, these are buildings for residential and civil purposes, which, as a rule, reflected the architecture and styles of the past with the use of traditional decor. On the other hand, there were utilitarian constructions, such as factories, workshops, elevators, in which modern materials, steel beams, and sheet glass were very unconstrainedly used. However, such buildings did not fall into the category of aesthetic architecture and were often designed by engineers and builders, rather than architects.
The development of modern architecture in the United States can be largely regarded as an adaptation of this kind of functional building and its widespread use for purposes other than industrial or business. Modern architects began to apply these new materials not only because of practical qualities, they consciously used their aesthetic capabilities. For example, with the help of glass, the outer space of the walls was opened to a greater extent. Masonry and brickwork have also lost their relevance, as steel beams replaced the previous load-bearing structures made of these materials.
The fundamental premise of modern architecture was that the appearance of the building should demonstrate the harmony of materials and form. This approach often led to effects that looked strange from the traditional point of view, but for this very reason they became signs of the modern architecture of the USA and Europe.
First skyscrapers
The most famous architectural innovation in the United States is skyscrapers - modern high-rise buildings, also called office towers (office towers). Such construction made several technical advances possible. In 1853, Elisha Otis invented the first safe elevator, which did not allow the cabin to slide down the shaft in the event of a breakdown of the suspension cable. Elevators made it possible to increase the number of storeys of buildings.
The 1868 contest determined the design of the six-story New York City Equitable Life Building, which was the first commercial building to use an elevator. Construction began in 1873. Other U.S. corporate architecture projects followed. For several decades, American high-rise buildings have combined conservative decorative elements with technological innovations.
Soon, multi-story construction faced a new engineering problem. Bearing stone walls could withstand a load not exceeding a 20-story height. The culmination of such construction is the Monadnock building (1891) from Burnham & Root in Chicago. Found a solution to this problem in 1884, engineer William LeBaron Jenney (William LeBaron Jenney), famous for having become the architect of the world's first skyscraper, and who is called the father of American skyscrapers. Instead of a stone wall, he used a metal base frame in the construction of the 1885 Chicago Insurance House in 1885. This technology led to the emergence of a skyscraper in US architecture. Following the development of Jenny, architects began to use a thin but strong metal frame instead of a brick supporting wall, thereby reducing the total weight of the building by two-thirds.
Another feature that, thanks to new engineering development, has become familiar in US architecture of the 20th century: since the outer walls no longer carried the weight of the building, huge windows instead of bricks occupied their space. So the first skyscraper appeared, in which flat glass occupied most of the outer surface of the walls. This new design first appeared in the Chicago Reliance Building, designed by Charles B. Atwood and E. Shankland in 1890-1895. Some of the most elegant early towers were designed by Louis Sullivan, America's first great modern architect.
Woolworth Building
The architecture of the 20th century in the USA is marked by the numerous erection of skyscrapers. One of the earliest culturally significant skyscrapers was the 1913 Woolworth Building in New York, built by prominent American architect Cass Gilbert, commissioned by prominent entrepreneur Frank Woolworth. Taking the previous technologies to a new level, a talented architect designed the construction of a 57-story building 233 meters high, as a result, the completed building reached 241 meters. Frank Woolworth was a fan of Gothic cathedrals, and Cass Gilbert designed an office tower with a neo-Gothic design for his shopping center. Until 1930, the Woolworth Building remained the tallest building in the world. To date, the design remains one of the 100 highest office towers in the United States, and is also one of the thirty largest skyscrapers in New York. Since 1966, the Woolworth Building has been considered a national historical landmark and a landmark city.
Skyscrapers - objects of construction competition
The Woolworth Building was followed by several outstanding designs, competing for the title of highest skyscraper or outstanding design and becoming a symbol of multi-story America.
40 Wall Street, known since Trump Building since 1996, is the 72-story neo-Gothic New York skyscraper built as the headquarters of Manhattan. Construction lasted 11 months and was completed in 1930. The height of all floors of Trump Building is 255 m, along with the spire the building rises to 282.5 m. For a short time after the Woolworth Building, the skyscraper was the tallest building in the world, but this title was taken away from the Chrysler Building office tower, which became a cult aesthetics of US architecture.
The description and photos do not fully convey the original design of the Chrysler Building, a New York-based Art Deco skyscraper located in Manhattan. The Chrysler Building was designed by architect William Van Alen as the corporate headquarters for Walter Chrysler, the head of Chrysler’s largest company. Together with the original roof and antenna spire, the 77-story building reached 318.9 m and exceeded all previous buildings.
However, after 11 months, the Empire State Building broke this record. When the Chrysler Building skyscraper was completed, reviews about the design of the structure, which was too advanced at that time, were more than ambiguous: some believed that the building was unoriginal, others that it looked crazy, there were also those who perceived it as cult and the most modern. Now Chrysler Building is a classic, an example of Art Deco architectural style, and in 2007 the tower took ninth place in the list of favorite US architecture.
In the description of the Empire State Building, it is necessary to mention that the skyscraper is a symbol of the state and city of New York. Its name comes from Empire State, one of the state’s nicknames dating back to the 19th century. The tower, recognized as America’s cultural icon, has been featured in over 250 television shows and films since the release of King Kong in 1933. The Empire State Building, with its ground floor interior, was identified by the New York City Monument Conservation Commission as a landmark. The American Society of Civil Engineers called the building one of the seven wonders of the modern world. Since 1986, this skyscraper is listed as a National Historic Site, and in 2007 it won first place on the list of selected buildings of the American Institute of Architects. The Empire State Building is a 102-story Art Deco skyscraper built by a group of architects in 1931. The total height of the building, including the antenna, is 443.2 m. As of 2017, the building is the fifth tallest completed skyscraper in the United States and 28th among the tallest in the world. It is also the 6th highest autonomous structure in the Americas.
Modern innovations in an international style
Before the start of World War II, many European architects emigrated to the United States, bringing ideas of what would be called the international style in the future. This trend spread throughout the world and until the 1970s was dominant in mass construction. Most of the techniques and design elements of International Style have become characteristic of US architecture of the 21st century. The style is characterized by the use of light industrial materials and repeating modular forms. The emphasis on volume and simplified form is intensified when ornament and color are abandoned, flat monotonous surfaces are used, usually alternating with glass.
In 1952, the New York skyscraper Lever House in central Manhattan was completed. Built in the International style, it did not differ in particular height, reaching 94 m. But the building, designed by Gordon Bunshout and Natalie de Blois, became advanced because it implemented a new approach to uniform glazing of the outer surface of the building. This technique will be established in the construction of the current century, the architecture of the 21st century in the United States and around the world. The desire for a larger window area reached its logical conclusion in Lever House: the entire facade of the building consists of solid windows. Glass and thin strips of metal on the outer shell of the structure - an innovative construction technology of the middle of the last century, became a completely familiar design today.
Small suburban construction
If we talk about residential architecture in the United States, then with the advent of electric trams along the inner ring around big cities, cottage construction began to develop. The first excitement of suburban development began in the mid-1890s and lasted until the end of the 1930s. The bulk of private houses appeared near tram and rail roads, as the only transport connecting with the city. The construction boom of this period led to the emergence of a new shape of the house, the so-called American Square or American Four. These are buildings of one or two floors, simple in form and design, often including handmade wooden elements.
The first cottage villages formed inner suburbs around cities in the United States, also called first ring buildings. They are the oldest densely populated communities in the suburban areas with their significant and rich history. Most internal private buildings share a common border with the main metropolis and develop near roads, railways, tram lines coming from the city, or at ferry terminals and along water borders.
The second wave of suburban development in the United States began in the middle of the last century. The 1944 Bill of Rights and a federal government loan decision made it possible for a personal home to be affordable housing for borrowers, even with low incomes. This significantly changed the architectural suburban landscape. Loans secured by the government made the dream of a home and a car very affordable for many citizens. The country began the global construction of cottage settlements with a well-maintained and comfortable, but standard architecture of the same type. Such monotonous residential areas have become a familiar feature of the landscape of the United States and are now reflecting low-budget buildings.
At the end of the 20th century, there was a direction for private housing, called the new classical architecture. Unlike low-budget cottages, in the construction of neoclassical mansions the ideal of proportions, materials and methods of traditional architecture of the previous styles and directions is sustained. In the 21st century, such construction gained unprecedented popularity and once again changed the architectural landscape of the American suburbs.