II-I century BC e. became a time of political upheaval. Several bloody civil wars and the brutal suppression of the slaves, including the well-known rebellion led by Spartacus, instilled fear in the souls of Roman citizens. The humiliation experienced by the lower strata of the population because of the unsuccessful struggle for their rights, the horror of the rich, who were shocked by the power of the lower classes, forced people to turn to religion.
The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. Introduction
The state was on the verge of a socio-economic crisis. Previously, all internal difficulties were solved at the expense of weaker neighbors. To exploit the labor of other people, it was necessary to capture prisoners and turn them into bonded workers. Now, ancient society has become one, and there was not enough money to capture the barbarian territories. The situation threatened stagnation in the production of goods. The slave system imposed a restriction on the further development of farms, but the owners were not ready to abandon the use of forced labor. It was already impossible to increase the productivity of slaves; large landownerships were disintegrating.
All sectors of society felt hopeless, they felt bewildered in the face of such global difficulties. People began to seek support in religion.
Of course, the state tried to help its citizens. The rulers sought to create a cult of their own personality, but the very artificiality of this faith and its clear political orientation doomed their efforts to failure. An obsolete pagan faith was also not enough.
I would like to note in the introduction (the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire will be described later) that Christianity brought with it faith in a superman who would share all his sufferings with the people. However, religion had three long centuries of hard struggle ahead, which ended for Christianity not just by recognizing it as an allowed religion, but as the official faith of the Roman Empire.
What were the reasons for the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire? When did they end? What was their result? About all this and not only read further in the article.
Reasons for the persecution of Christians
Researchers identify various causes of persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. Most often they talk about the incompatibility of the worldview of Christianity and the traditions adopted in Roman society. Christians were considered offenders of majesty and followers of the forbidden religion. Unacceptable seemed meetings held secretly and after sunset, holy books in which, according to the Romans, the secrets of healing and exile of demons, some rites were recorded.
Orthodox historian V.V. Bolotov puts forward his own version, noting that in the Roman Empire the church was always subordinate to the emperor, and religion itself was only part of the political system. Bolotov comes to the conclusion that the difference in the postulates of the Christian and pagan religions became the cause of their confrontation, but since paganism did not have an organized church, Christianity found itself an adversary in the person of the whole Empire.
How did Roman citizens see Christians?
In many ways, the reason for the difficult situation of Christians in the Roman Empire was prejudiced by Roman citizens. All the inhabitants of the empire were hostile: from the lower strata to the state elite. A huge role in shaping the views on Christians in the Roman Empire was played by all sorts of prejudices and slander.
To understand the whole depth of misunderstanding between Christians and Romans, one should turn to the Octavius ​​treatise of an early Christian apologist, Minucius Felix. In it, the author’s interlocutor Cecilius repeats the traditional accusations towards Christianity: the contradictory nature of faith, the lack of moral principles and a threat to the culture of Rome. Cecilius calls the “double madness” faith in the rebirth of the soul, and the Christians themselves - “dumb in society, talkative in their shelters.”
The rise of Christianity
In the first time after the death of Jesus Christ, there were almost no Christians in the state. Surprisingly, the very essence of the Roman Empire helped religion spread rapidly. Good quality roads and strict social separation led to the fact that already in the II century almost every Roman city had its own Christian community. This was not an accidental union, but a real union: its participants helped each other in word and deed, from the total money it was possible to get a benefit. Most often, the first Christians of the Roman Empire gathered for prayer in secret places, for example, caves and catacombs. Soon, the traditional symbols of Christianity took shape: a vine of grapes, a fish, a crossed monogram from the first letters of the name of Christ.
Periodization
The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire continued from the beginning of the first millennium until the publication of the Edict of Milan in 313. In the Christian tradition, they are usually counted in ten, based on the treatise of the rhetorician Lactantius "On the deaths of persecutors." However, it should be noted that this division is conditional: there were less than ten specially organized persecutions, and the number of random ones far exceeded ten.
Persecution of Christians under Nero
The persecution, which took place under the leadership of this emperor, amazes the mind with its immeasurable cruelty. The Christians were sewn up in the skins of wild animals and given to the dogs to be torn to pieces, put on in clothes soaked in resin and set on fire so that the “infidels” would light up the feasts of Nero. But such ruthlessness only strengthened the spirit of Christian unity.
Martyrs Paul and Peter
July 12 (June 29) Christians around the world celebrate the day of Peter and Paul. Memorial Day of the Holy Apostles, who accepted death at the hands of Nero, was celebrated in the Roman Empire.
Paul and Peter were preaching, and although they always worked away from each other, they were destined to die together. The emperor greatly disliked the “apostle of the Gentiles,” and his hatred only became stronger when he learned that during his first arrest, Paul converted many courtiers to his faith. The next time Nero strengthened the guard. The ruler longed to kill Paul as soon as possible, but at the trial the speech of the supreme apostle struck him so much that he decided to postpone the execution.
The apostle Paul was a citizen of Rome, so he was not tortured. The execution took place secretly. The emperor was afraid that with his courage and steadfastness he would convert to Christianity those who saw it. However, even the executioners themselves listened carefully to Paul's words and were struck by the stamina of his spirit.
The Holy Tradition says that the apostle Peter, along with Simon Magus, who was also known for his ability to raise the dead, was invited by a woman to bury her son. To reveal the deception of Simon, which many in the city considered God, Peter brought the young man back to life.
The wrath of Nero turned on Peter after he converted the two wives of the emperor to Christianity. The ruler ordered the execution of the supreme apostle. At the request of believers, Peter decided to leave Rome in order to avoid punishment, but he saw the vision of the Lord entering the gates of the city. The disciple asked Christ where he was going. “To Rome, to be crucified again,” came the answer, and Peter returned.
Since the apostle was not a Roman citizen, he was scourged and crucified on the cross. Before his death, he remembered his sins and considered himself unworthy to accept the same death as his Lord. At the request of Peter, the executioners nailed him upside down.
Persecution of Christians under Domitian
Under Emperor Domitian, a decree was issued according to which not a single Christian who appeared before the court would be pardoned unless he renounced his faith. Sometimes his hatred came to complete recklessness: Christians were accused of fires, illnesses, earthquakes that had occurred in the country. The state paid money to those who were willing to testify against Christians in court. Slander and falsehood greatly aggravated the already difficult position of Christians in the Roman Empire. The persecution continued.
Persecution under Adrian
During the reign of Emperor Hadrian, about ten thousand Christians died. The whole family of a brave Roman military leader, an upright Christian, Eustachius, who refused to offer a sacrifice to idols in honor of victory, perished at his hands.
The brothers Fausin and Yovit endured the torture with such humble patience that the pagan Kaloserius said in amazement: “How great is the Christian God!” He was immediately arrested and also tortured.
Persecution under Marcus Aurelius Antoninus
The famous philosopher of antiquity, Marcus Aurelius was also widely known for his ruthlessness. On his initiative, the fourth persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire began.
The student of the Apostle John Polycarp, learning that the Roman soldiers came to arrest him, tried to escape, but was soon found. The bishop fed his captors and asked them to let him pray. His zeal struck the soldiers so much that they asked him for forgiveness. Polycarp was sentenced to be burned on the trading floor, before inviting him to renounce his faith. But Polycarpus answered: "How can I betray My King, who never cheated on me?" The set on fire burned, but the flame did not touch his body. Then the executioner pierced the bishop with a sword.
Under the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, Sanctus and the deacon from Vienna accepted death. He was tortured by putting hot plates of copper on his naked body, which burned his flesh to the bones.
Persecution under Septimius North
In the first decade of his reign, Septimius tolerated the followers of Christianity and was not afraid to keep them at court. But in 202, after the Parthian campaign, he tightened the religious policy of the Roman state. His biography says that he forbade the adoption of the Christian faith under the threat of terrible punishments, although he allowed those who were already converted to practice the Christian religion in the Roman Empire. Many of the victims of the cruel emperor held a high social position, which greatly shocked the society.
It was to this time that the sacrifice of Felicitatus and Perpetua, Christian martyrs, dates. “The Passion of Saints of Perpetua, Felicitates and the Afflicted with It” is one of the earliest documents of this kind in the history of Christianity.
Perpetuating was a young girl with a baby, came from a noble family. Felicitata served her and was pregnant at the time of her arrest. Together with them, Saturninus and Secundul, as well as the slave Revokat, ended up in conclusion. All of them were preparing to adopt Christianity, which was forbidden by the law of that time. They were taken into custody, and soon their mentor Satur joined them, who did not want to hide.
The Passion says that Perpetuya was worried about the first days of imprisonment, worrying about her baby, but the deacons managed to bribe the guards and give her the baby. After that, the dungeon became like a palace for her. Her father, a pagan, and a Roman procurator tried to persuade Perpetus to renounce Christ, but the girl was adamant.
The death was taken away by Second when he was in custody. Felicitat was afraid that the law would not allow her to give her soul to the glory of Christ, since Roman law forbade the execution of pregnant women. But a few days before the execution, she gave birth to a daughter, who was transferred to a free Christian.
The prisoners again declared themselves Christians and were sentenced to death - to be torn to pieces by wild animals; but the animals could not kill them. Then the martyrs greeted each other with a brotherly kiss and were beheaded.
Persecution under Maximinus Thracian
Under Emperor Marc Claudius Maximinus, the life of Christians in the Roman Empire was under constant threat. At that time, mass executions were organized, often in one grave it was necessary to bury up to fifty people.
The Roman Bishop Pontian for the sermon was exiled to the mines of Sardinia, which at that time amounted to a death sentence. His successor Anter was killed 40 days after the death of Pontian for insulting the government.
Despite the fact that Maximin mostly persecuted the clergymen who headed the Church, this did not stop him from executing the Roman Senator Pammach, his family, and another 42 Christians. Their heads were hung out on the city gates for intimidation.
Persecution of Christians at Decius
No less difficult time for Christianity was the reign of Emperor Decius. The motives that prompted him to such cruelty are still unclear. Some sources say that the reason for the new persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire (briefly about the events of those times is discussed in the article) was hatred towards his predecessor, the Christian emperor Philip. According to other sources, Decius Trajan did not like the fact that Christianity spread throughout the state overshadowed pagan gods.
Whatever the origins of the eighth persecution of Christians, it is considered one of the most cruel. New problems were added to the previous problems of Christians in the Roman Empire: the emperor issued two edicts, the first of which was directed against the supreme clergy, and the second ordered sacrifices to be carried out throughout the empire.
The new legislation was to carry out two cases at once. Every Roman citizen was required to go through a pagan ritual. So any person who was under suspicion could prove that the charges in his direction are completely unreasonable. With this trick, Decius not only discovered Christians who were immediately sentenced to death, but also tried to force them to renounce their faith.
The young man Peter, known for his intelligence and beauty, had to make a sacrifice to the Roman goddess of carnal love Venus. The young man refused, saying that he was surprised how to worship a woman, about the lack of respect and baseness of which is mentioned in the Roman writings themselves. For this, Peter was stretched out on a crushing wheel and tortured, and then, when he did not have a single whole bone, he was beheaded.
The ruler of Sicily, Quantin, wanted to get a girl named Agatha, but she refused him. Then, using his power, he gave it to a brothel. However, Agatha, being a true Christian, remained faithful to her principles. Enraged, Quantin ordered to torture her, whip him, and then put on hot coals mixed with glass. Agatha endured with dignity all the cruelties that fell to her lot and later died in prison from wounds.
Persecution of Christians under Valerian
The first years of the reign of the emperor were a time of calm for Christians in the Roman Empire. Some even thought that Valerian was very friendly towards them. But in 257, his opinion changed dramatically. Perhaps the reason lies in the influence of his friend Makrin, who did not like the Christian religion.
First, Publius Valerian ordered all clerics to sacrifice to the Roman gods, for disobedience they were sent to exile. The ruler believed that, acting moderately, he would achieve greater results in anti-Christian politics than the use of cruel measures. He hoped that Christian bishops would renounce their faith, and their flocks would do the same after them.
The Golden Legend, a collection of Christian legends and descriptions of the lives of saints, tells us that the imperial soldiers chopped off the head of Stephen I right during the mass that the Pope served for his pasta. According to legend, his blood was not erased from the papal throne for a long time. His successor, Pope Sixtus II, was executed after the second order, August 6, 259, along with six of his deacons.
It soon turned out that such a policy was ineffective, and Valerian issued a new edict. Clergy were executed for disobedience, noble citizens and their families were deprived of their property, and in case of disobedience they were killed.
Such was the fate of two beautiful girls, Rufina and Secunda. They and their young people were Christians. When the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire began, the young men were afraid to lose their wealth and renounced their faith. They tried to persuade their lovers, but the girls were adamant. Their former halves did not fail to write a denunciation on them, Rufina and Secunda were arrested and then beheaded.
Persecution of Christians under Aurelian
Under the emperor Lucius Aurelian, the cult of the god “Invincible Sun” was introduced in the Roman Empire, which has long overshadowed pagan beliefs. According to the testimony of the rhetorician, Lactantia Aurelian wanted to organize a new persecution, incomparable with the past in its cruelty, which would forever solve the problem of Christianity in the Roman Empire. Fortunately, he did not succeed in implementing his plan. The emperor was killed in a conspiracy by his subjects.
The persecution of Christians under his leadership was more local in nature. For example, a young man living near Rome sold his wealthy estate and distributed all the money to the poor, for which he was convicted and beheaded.
Persecution of Diocletian and Gallery
The most difficult test fell on the lot of Christians of the Roman Empire under Diocletian and his eastern co-ruler Galeria. The last persecution was then called the “Great Persecution”.
The emperor sought to revive the fading pagan religion. He began the implementation of his plan in 303 in the eastern part of the country. Early in the morning, soldiers burst into the main church of Christians and burned all the books. Diocletian and his adoptive son Galerius wished to personally see the beginning of the end of the Christian faith, and it seemed to them little of their deed. The building was destroyed to the ground.
The next step was the issuance of a decree according to which Christians of Nicomedia were to be arrested, and their places of worship were burnt. The gallery wanted more blood, and he ordered that his father’s palace be set on fire, blaming the Christians for everything. The flames of persecution swept the whole country. At that time, the empire was divided into two parts - Gaul and Britain. In Britain, which was under the control of Constance, the second decree was not implemented.
For ten years, Christians were tortured, accused of state misfortunes, illnesses, fires. Entire families died in the fire, many hung stones on their necks and drowned in the sea. Then the rulers of many Roman lands appealed to the emperor with a request to stop, but it was too late. Christians were mutilated, many were deprived of their eyes, nose, ears.
Edict of Milan and its meaning
The end to the persecution dates back to 313 AD. This important change in the position of Christians is associated with the creation of the Edict of Milan by the emperors Constantine and Licinius.
This document was a continuation of the Nicomedian edict, which was only a step towards ending the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. The Edict of Tolerance was published by the Gallery in 311. Although he was found guilty at the beginning of the Great Persecution, he nevertheless admitted that the persecution failed. Christianity did not disappear, but rather strengthened its position.
The document conditionally legalized the practice of the Christian religion on the territory of the country, but at the same time Christians had to pray for the emperor and Rome, they did not get back their churches and temples.
The edict of Milan deprived paganism of the role of state religion. Christians were returned their property, which they lost as a result of persecution. The 300-year period of persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire ended.
Terrible torture in times of persecution of Christians
Stories of how tortured Christians in the Roman Empire entered the lives of many saints. Although the Roman legal system preferred the sentence of crucifixion or eaten by lions, more sophisticated methods of torture can be found in Christian history.
For example, St. Lawrence devoted his life to caring for the poor and overseeing the property of the church. Once the Roman prefect wanted to withdraw the money that Lavrenti kept. The deacon asked for three days for training, and during this time he distributed everything to the poor. The angry Roman ordered to cruelly punish the rebellious priest. Above the hot coals, a metal grate was placed on which Lawrence was laid. His body was slowly charred, his flesh hissed, but the perfect did not wait for an apology. Instead, he heard the following words: “You baked me on one side, so turn me on the other and eat my body!”
The Roman emperor Decius hated Christians for their refusal to worship him as a deity. Upon learning that his best soldiers secretly accepted the Christian faith, he tried to bribe them and persuade them to return. In response, the soldiers left the city and took refuge in a cave. Decius ordered the walled shelter, and all seven died of dehydration and starvation.
Cecilia of Rome professed Christianity from an early age. Her parents married her to a pagan, but the girl did not resist, but only prayed for the help of the Lord. She was able to dissuade her husband from carnal love and brought him to Christianity. Together they helped the poor throughout Rome. Prefect Turkey Almakhiy ordered Cecilia and Valerian to sacrifice to the pagan gods, and in response to the refusal sentenced them to death. Roman justice was to do away from the city. On the way, the young couple was able to convert to Christianity several soldiers and their boss Maxim, who invited the Christians home and together with his family accepted the faith. The next day, after the execution of Valerian, Maxim said that he saw the ascent of the soul of the deceased to heaven, for which he was beaten to death with whips. For several days Cecilia was kept in a bath with boiling water, but the virgin martyr survived. When the executioner tried to chop off her head, he managed to inflict only mortal wounds. Saint Cecilia remained alive for several days, continuing to turn people to the Lord.
But one of the most terrible destinies fell to Saint Victor the Moor. He secretly preached in Milan when he was captured and, tied to a horse, dragged along the streets. The crowd demanded renunciation, but the preacher remained faithful to religion. He was crucified for his refusal, and then thrown into prison. Victor converted several guards to Christianity, for which they were soon executed by Emperor Maximilian. The preacher himself was ordered to sacrifice to the Roman god. Instead, he attacked the altar with fury. Unconquered, he was thrown into a stone mill and ground.
The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. Conclusion
In 379, power over the state passed into the hands of Emperor Theodosius I, the last ruler of the united Roman Empire. The Edict of Milan was terminated, according to which the country was to remain neutral in relation to religion. This event was a conclusion to the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. February 27, 380 Theodosius the Great proclaimed Christianity the only religion acceptable to Roman citizens.
Thus ended the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. 15 sheets of text cannot contain all the important information about those times. However, we tried to expose the very essence of those events in the most accessible and detailed way.