At the end of the 18th century, the Great Revolution took place in France. The years that followed were not at all calm. The coming to power of Napoleon and his conquests, which ended in defeat after the "Hundred Days", led to the fact that the victorious powers imposed the restoration of the Bourbons on the country. But even during the reign of Louis XVIII, passions did not subside. The aristocrats who returned the influence longed for revenge, they carried out repressions against the Republicans, and this only fueled the protest. The king was too ill to fully deal with even the most pressing problems; he could not advance his country forward, either economically or politically. But, having died of an illness in 1824, he became the last French king who was not overthrown as a result of revolution or coup. Why did the July Revolution (1830) take place after his death, which historians call the “Three Glorious Days”?
Background of the July Revolution of 1830: The Role of the Bourgeoisie
What are the causes of the July revolution in France? By the 1830s, capitalism in Western Europe had strengthened its position. In England, the industrial revolution ended; in France, factory production also developed rapidly (in this respect, the country was ahead of Belgium and Prussia).
This led to increased influence of the industrial bourgeoisie, which was now eager for power, while the government defended the interests of exclusively aristocrats, landowners and the higher clergy. This negatively affected the economic development of the state. The protests were fueled by the defiant behavior of emigrants from the aristocratic milieu who threatened to restore the pre-revolutionary order.
In addition, the bourgeoisie, and in this environment there were many Republicans who supported the revolution, was unhappy with the increasing role of the Jesuits at the royal court, in administrative institutions, as well as in schools.
Ex-Remuneration Remuneration Act
In 1825, a law was passed in the country according to which emigrants from the former aristocracy received compensation in the amount of about a billion francs for the damage caused, that is, for confiscated land. This law was to again strengthen the position of the aristocracy in the country. However, he immediately provoked discontent among two estates - the peasants and the bourgeoisie. The latter was unhappy that cash payments to the nobility, in fact, were made at the expense of the renter, since it was assumed that the conversion of state rent from 5 to 3% would provide funds for this, and this directly affected the income of the bourgeoisie.
At the same time, the “Law on sacrilege,” which adopted very harsh penalties for misconduct against religion, also fueled the dissatisfaction of this estate, since this saw a return to the old days.
Industrial crisis as a prerequisite for the July revolution
The reasons for the July Revolution of 1830 also lay in the fact that in 1826 there was an industrial crisis in the country. It was a classic crisis of overproduction, but the first cyclical crisis that France faced after England. He was replaced by a phase of prolonged depression. The crisis coincided with several years of crop failure, which worsened the situation of the bourgeoisie, workers and peasants. In cities, many were faced with the inability to find work, in villages with hunger.
The industrial bourgeoisie blamed the incident on the authorities, blaming the government for the fact that due to high customs duties on grain, fuel and raw materials, the cost of French goods is growing, and their competitiveness on world markets is falling.
The first barricades and changes in government
In 1827, there was, so to speak, a rehearsal of the revolution. Then, in connection with the elections to the Chamber of Deputies in Paris, there were by no means peaceful demonstrations, barricades were erected in the workers' quarters, and the rebels entered into a bloody confrontation with the police.
In the same 1827, liberals gained a lot of votes in the elections, who demanded the expansion of suffrage, the responsibility of the government to parliament, the right for local self-government, and much more. As a result, King Charles X was forced to resign the ultra-royalist government. But the new government, headed by Count Martignac, who unsuccessfully sought compromises between the bourgeoisie and the nobles, did not suit the king. And he again dismissed the government, formed a new cabinet of ultra-royalists and placed at the head of his favorite, the Duke of Polignac, a man devoted to him personally.
Meanwhile, tensions in the country increased, and changes in government contributed to this.
Ordinances of July 26 and the abolition of the Charter of 1814
The king believed that protest could be dealt with by tightening the regime. And so, on July twenty-sixth, 1830, the newspaper “Monitor” published ordinances, which, in effect, repealed the provisions of the constitutional Charter of 1814. But it is precisely under these conditions that the states that defeated Napoleon revived the monarchy in France. Citizens of the country took these ordinances as an attempt at a coup. Moreover, these acts, depriving France of free state institutions, were just such.
The first ordinance abolished the freedom of the press, the second dissolved the house of parliament, and the third, in fact, was a new electoral law, according to which the number of deputies was reduced and the number of voters was reduced, moreover, the chamber was deprived of the right to amend the adopted bills. The fourth ordinance was the opening of the session of the chambers.
The beginning of public unrest: the situation in the capital
The king was confident in the strength of the government. No measures were planned for possible unrest among the masses, since the prefect of the police, Manzhen, said that the Parisians would not move. The Duke of Polignac believed this, because he thought that the people as a whole were indifferent to the electoral system. In the case of the lower classes, it was, but the interests of the bourgeoisie affected the ordinances very seriously.
True, the government believed that the bourgeois did not dare to take up arms. Therefore, there were only 14 thousand military men in the capital, and no measures were taken to transfer additional forces to Paris. The king went hunting in Rambouille, from where he planned to go to his residence in Saint-Cloud.
The influence of ordinances and manifestation in the Palais Royal
Ordinances did not reach the public immediately. But the reaction to them was strong. On the exchange, rent fell sharply. Meanwhile, journalists, whose meeting was held in the editorial office of the newspaper "Constitutionalist", decided to publish a protest against the ordinances, and drawn up in rather harsh terms.
Several meetings of deputies took place on the same day. However, they could not come to some kind of common decision and joined the protesters only when it seemed to them that the uprising could achieve its goal. Interestingly, the judges supported the rebels. At the request of the newspapers Tang, Courier France and others, the commercial court and the trial court ordered the printing houses to print regular numbers with the text of the protest, since the ordinances contradicted the Charter and could not be binding on citizens.
On the evening of July twenty-six in the Palais Royal, demonstrations began. Protesters shouted slogans “Down with the ministers!” The Duke of Polignac, who was riding in his carriage along the boulevards, miraculously escaped from the crowd.
July 27 events: barricades
The July Revolution in France of 1830 began on July 27. The printing houses were closed that day. Their workers took to the streets, dragging along other workers and artisans. Citizens discussed ordinances and a protest published by journalists. At the same time, the Parisians learned that Marmont, who was unpopular among the people, would command the troops in the capital. However, Marmont himself did not approve of the ordinances and restrained the officers, ordering them not to start firing until the rebels did not start the shoot themselves, and by shooting, he understood at least fifty shots.
On this day, barricades grew on the streets of Paris. Towards evening, fights ensued, the instigators of which were mostly students. The barricades on Sainte Honore were taken by troops. But riots in the city continued, and Polignac announced that Paris was under siege. The king remained in Saint-Cloud, not departing from his usual schedule and carefully hiding the signs of anxiety.
July 28 events: riot continues
The uprising that swept Paris involved not only students and journalists, but also the petty bourgeoisie, including merchants. Soldiers and officers took the side of the rebels - the latter led the armed struggle. But the big financial bourgeoisie took a wait and see attitude.
But already on July 28, it became clear that the uprising was massive. It was time to decide who to join.
July 29 events: Tuileries and Louvre
The next day, rebels with battle captured the Tuileries Palace. A tricolor from the time of the French Revolution was raised above it. The troops were defeated. They were forced to retreat to the royal residence of Saint-Cloud, but several regiments joined the rebels. Meanwhile, the Parisians began a shootout with the Swiss Guard, which was concentrated behind the colonnade of the Louvre, and forced the military to flee.
These events showed the deputies that the power is on the side of the rebels. Bankers also made their decision. They took charge of the victorious rebellion, including administrative functions and providing the rebellious city with food.
July 30 events: actions of the authorities
While close associates tried to influence Charles X in Saint-Cloud, explaining the true state of affairs to him, a new cabinet of ministers was formed in Paris, headed by the duke of Mortemar, a supporter of the Charter of 1814. The Bourbon dynasty could not be saved.
The July Revolution of 1830, which began as an uprising against the restriction of freedoms and against the government of Polignac, went over to the slogans of the overthrow of the king. The Duke of Louis Philippe of Orleans was declared the viceroy of the kingdom , and he had little choice - either rule in accordance with the idea of the rebellious bourgeoisie about the nature of such power, or exile.
On August 1, Charles X was forced to sign the corresponding ordinance. But he abdicated in favor of his grandson. However, this did not matter. Two weeks later, Charles X emigrated to England with his family, Louis Philippe became king, a precarious order was restored, the so-called July Monarchy, which lasted until 1848.
Consequences of the July Revolution of 1830
What are the results of the July revolution? To power in France came, in fact, large financial circles. They prevented the establishment of the republic and the deepening of the revolution, but a more liberal Charter was adopted, which reduced the property qualification for voters and expanded the rights of the Chamber of Deputies. The rights of the Catholic clergy were limited. Local governments gained more rights, although as a result, large taxpayers still got all the power in the municipal councils. But no one thought to revise the harsh laws against the workers.
The July Revolution of 1830 in France accelerated the uprising in neighboring Belgium, where, however, the revolutionaries advocated the formation of an independent state. Revolutionaries began in Saxony and other German states, rebelled against the Russian Empire in Poland, and the struggle for parliamentary reform intensified in England.