Ecosystems are unified natural complexes that are formed by a combination of living organisms and their environment. The study of these formations is the science of ecology.
The term “ecosystem” appeared in 1935. It was proposed by the English ecologist A. Tensley to use it. A natural or natural-anthropogenic complex in which both living and indirect components are closely interconnected through metabolism and distribution of energy flow - all this is included in the concept of “ecosystem”. The types of ecosystems are different. It divides these basic functional units of the biosphere into separate groups and studies environmental science.
Classification by origin
There are various ecosystems on our planet. Types of ecosystems are classified in a certain way. However, it is impossible to link together the diversity of these units of the biosphere. That is why there are several classifications of ecological systems. For example, distinguish them by origin. It:
- Natural ecosystems . These include those complexes in which the circulation of substances is carried out without any human intervention.
- Artificial (anthropogenic) ecosystems. They are created by man and are able to exist only with his direct support.
Natural ecosystems
Natural complexes that exist without human participation have their own internal classification. The following types of natural ecosystems are energy-based:
- completely dependent on solar radiation;
- receiving energy not only from the heavenly body, but also from other natural sources.
The first of these two types of ecosystems is unproductive. Nevertheless, such natural complexes are extremely important for our planet, since they exist on vast areas and affect the formation of climate, purify large volumes of the atmosphere, etc.
Natural complexes that receive energy from several sources are the most productive.
Artificial Biosphere Units
Different and anthropogenic ecosystems. Types of ecosystems included in this group include:
- agroecosystems that appear as a result of human farming;
- techno-ecosystems resulting from the development of industry;
- urban ecosystems resulting from the creation of settlements.
All these are types of anthropogenic ecosystems created with the direct participation of man.
A variety of natural components of the biosphere
The types and types of ecosystems of natural origin are different. Moreover, environmentalists distinguish them based on the climatic and natural conditions of their existence. So, there are three groups and a number of different units of the biosphere.
The main types of ecosystems of natural origin:
- ground;
- freshwater;
- sea.
Terrestrial natural complexes
The diversity of terrestrial ecosystem types includes:
- arctic and alpine tundra;
- coniferous boreal forests;
- deciduous arrays of the temperate zone;
- steppes;
- savannas and tropical grasslands;
- chaparral, which are areas with arid summers and rainy winters;
- deserts (both shrubby and grassy);
- semi-evergreen tropical forests located in areas with pronounced dry and wet seasons;
- tropical evergreen rainforests.
In addition to the main types of ecosystems, there are also transitional ones. These are forest-tundra, semi-desert, etc.
The reasons for the existence of various types of natural complexes
By what principle are various natural ecosystems located on our planet? Types of ecosystems of natural origin are in a particular zone depending on the amount of precipitation and air temperature. It is known that the climate in different parts of the globe has significant differences. Moreover, the annual amount of precipitation is not the same. It can be in the range from 0 to 250 and more millimeters. In this case, precipitation falls either evenly during all seasons, or falls in the main share for a certain wet period. The average annual temperature also varies on our planet. It can have values from negative values or reach thirty-eight degrees of heat. The constancy of heating of air masses is also different. It may either not have significant differences during the year, as, for example, at the equator, and constantly change.
Characterization of natural complexes
The diversity of species of natural ecosystems of the terrestrial group leads to the fact that each of them has its own distinctive features. So, in the tundra, which is located north of the taiga, there is a very cold climate. This area is characterized by a negative average annual temperature and a change in the polar day and night. Summer in these parts lasts only a few weeks. At the same time, the earth manages to thaw to a shallow meter depth. Rainfall in the tundra falls by less than 200-300 millimeters during the year. Due to such climatic conditions, these lands are poor in vegetation, represented by slowly growing lichens, moss, and dwarf or creeping shrubs lingonberries and blueberries. At times, you can find dwarf birch.
The wildlife is also not rich. It is represented by reindeer, small digging mammals, as well as predators such as ermine, arctic fox and weasel. The world of birds is represented by a polar owl, a bug and a plover. The insects in the tundra are mostly dipterans. The tundra ecosystem is highly vulnerable due to poor restoration ability.
Taiga, located in the northern regions of America and Eurasia, is very diverse. This ecosystem is characterized by cold and long winters and numerous snowfalls. The plant world is represented by evergreen coniferous massifs in which fir and spruce, pine and larch grow. Representatives of the animal world are moose and badgers, bears and squirrels, sables and wolverines, wolves and lynxes, foxes and minks. The taiga is characterized by the presence of many lakes and swamps.
The following ecosystems are represented by deciduous forests. Species of ecosystems of this type are found in the eastern United States, in East Asia and in Western Europe. This is a seasonal climate zone where the temperature in winter drops below zero, and from 750 to 1500 mm of precipitation falls during the year. The plant world of such an ecosystem is represented by broad-leaved trees such as beech and oak, ash and linden. There are bushes and a powerful grass layer. The animal world is represented by bears and moose, foxes and lynxes, squirrels and shrews. Owls and woodpeckers, blackbirds and falcons live in such an ecosystem.
Steppe temperate zones are in Eurasia and North America. Their counterparts are Tussoki in New Zealand, as well as pampas in South America. The climate in these areas is seasonal. In the summer, the air heats up from moderately warm to very high. Winter temperatures are negative. From 250 to 750 millimeters of precipitation is observed here during the year. The plant world of the steppes is represented mainly by turfgrains. Among animals there are bison and antelopes, saigas and ground squirrels, rabbits and marmots, wolves and hyenas.
Chaparali are located in the Mediterranean, as well as in California, Georgia, Mexico and the southern shores of Australia. These are zones of mild temperate climate, where from 500 to 700 millimeters of precipitation falls during the year. From the vegetation there are shrubs and trees with evergreen hard leaves, such as wild pistachios, laurels, etc.
Ecological systems such as savannahs are located in East and Central Africa, South America and Australia. Most of them are located in South India. These are zones of hot and dry climate, where from 250 to 750 mm of precipitation falls during the year. The vegetation is mainly grassy, only rare deciduous trees (palms, baobabs and acacias) are found in some places. The animal world is represented by zebras and antelopes, rhinos and giraffes, leopards and lions, vultures, etc. There are many blood-sucking insects such as tsetse flies in these parts.
Deserts are found in parts of Africa, northern Mexico, etc. The climate is dry, with less than 250 mm of rainfall per year. Days in the deserts are hot and nights are cold. Vegetation is represented by cacti and sparse shrubs with extensive root systems. Gophers and jerboas, antelopes and wolves are widespread among the representatives of the animal world. This is a fragile ecosystem that is easily destroyed by water and wind erosion.
Semi-evergreen tropical deciduous forests are found in Central America and Asia. In these zones there is a shift of dry and wet seasons. The average annual rainfall is from 800 to 1300 mm. Rainforests are inhabited by a rich wildlife.
Rain tropical evergreen forests are found in many parts of our planet. They are in Central America, in the north of South America, in the central and western parts of equatorial Africa, in the coastal regions of northwestern Australia, as well as on the islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Warm climatic conditions in these parts do not differ seasonally. Heavy rainfall exceeds a limit of 2500 mm during the year. This system is characterized by a huge variety of flora and fauna.
Existing natural complexes, as a rule, do not have any clear boundaries. Between them, there is a transition zone. In it, not only the interaction of populations of different types of ecosystems occurs, but also special species of living organisms are found. Thus, the transition zone includes a greater variety of representatives of the fauna and flora than the neighboring territories.
Aquatic natural complexes
These units of the biosphere can exist in fresh water bodies and seas. The first of these include ecosystems such as:
- lentic - these are reservoirs, ponds, lakes, that is, standing water;
- lotic, represented by streams, rivers, springs;
- wetlands in the form of swamps, marshy forests and coastal meadows.
Types of marine ecosystems include:
- pelogic complex - open ocean;
- coastal waters in the continental shelf zone ;
- upwelling areas where productive fishing is carried out;
- straits, bays, estuaries, which are estuaries;
- deep water zones of reefs.
Natural Complex Example
Ecologists distinguish a wide variety of species of natural ecosystems. Nevertheless, the existence of each of them occurs according to the same scheme. In order to most deeply understand the interaction of all living and nonliving creatures in a unit of the biosphere, we consider the form of the meadow ecosystem. All microorganisms and animals living here have a direct effect on the chemical composition of air and soil.
A meadow is an equilibrium system that includes various elements. One of them - macro-producers, which is grassy vegetation, create organic products of this terrestrial community. Further, the life of the natural complex is carried out due to the biological food chain. Plant animals or primary consumers feed on meadow herbs and their parts. These are such representatives of the fauna as large herbivores and insects, rodents and many species of invertebrates (ground squirrel and hare, partridge, etc.).
Primary consumers go to food secondary, which include carnivorous birds and mammals (wolf, owl, hawk, fox, etc.). Next, reducers are connected to the work. Without them, a complete description of the ecosystem is impossible. The species of many fungi and bacteria are these elements in the natural complex. Reducers decompose organic products to a mineral state. If temperature conditions are favorable, then plant debris and dead animals quickly decompose into simple compounds. Some of these components contain batteries that are leached and reused. The more stable part of organic residues (humus, cellulose, etc.) decomposes more slowly, nourishing the plant world.
Anthropogenic Ecosystems
The natural complexes considered above can exist without any human intervention. The situation is completely different in anthropogenic ecosystems. Their connections work only with the direct participation of a person. For example, agroecosystem. The main condition for its existence is not only the use of solar energy, but also the receipt of "subsidies" in the form of a kind of fuel.
Partially, this system is similar to the natural one. A similarity with the natural complex is observed during the growth and development of plants, occurring due to the energy of the sun. However, farming is impossible without preparing the soil layer and harvesting. And these processes require energy subsidies of human society.
What kind of ecosystems does a city belong to? This is an anthropogenic complex in which fuel energy is of great importance. Its consumption in comparison with a stream of sunshine is two to three times higher. The city can be compared with deep-sea or cave ecosystems. After all, the existence of precisely these biogeocenoses largely depends on the influx of substances and energy from the outside.
Urban ecosystems have emerged as a result of a historical process called urbanization. Under his influence, the population of countries left rural areas, creating large settlements. Gradually, cities more and more strengthened their role in the development of society. At the same time, to improve life, a man himself created a complex urban system. This led to some separation of cities from nature and the disruption of existing natural complexes. The settlement system can be called urban. However, as industry developed, things changed somewhat. What kind of ecosystems is the city in the territory of which the factory or factory operates? Rather, it can be called industrial-urban. This complex consists of residential areas and territories on which facilities producing various products are located. The ecosystem of the city differs from the natural one in more abundant and, in addition, a toxic stream of various wastes.
In order to improve his living environment, a person creates so-called green belts around his settlements. They consist of grassy lawns and shrubs, trees and ponds. These small-sized natural ecosystems create organic products that do not play a special role in urban life. For existence, people need food, fuel, water and electricity from the outside.
The process of urbanization has significantly changed the life of our planet. The impact of an artificially created anthropogenic system to a large extent changed the nature of the vast territories of the Earth. At the same time, the city affects not only those areas where the architectural and construction objects themselves are located. It affects vast territories and beyond. For example, with an increase in demand for woodworking products, people cut down forests.
During the functioning of the city, a wide variety of substances enter the atmosphere. They pollute the air and change climatic conditions. In cities, there is higher cloud cover and less sunlight, more fog and drizzle, and also slightly warmer than in the surrounding countryside.