The origin of the science of substances can be attributed to the era of antiquity. The ancient Greeks knew seven metals and a few more alloys. Gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, iron and mercury - these are the substances that were known at that time. The history of chemistry began with practical knowledge. Their theoretical understanding was first undertaken by various scientists and philosophers - Aristotle, Plato and Empedocles. The first of them believed that each of these substances can be transformed into another. He explained this by the existence of primary matter, which served as the beginning of all principles.
Antique philosophy
It was also widely believed that the basis of each substance in the world is a combination of four elements - water, fire, earth and air. It is these forces of nature that are responsible for the transmutation of metals. At the same time in the V century. BC e. a theory of atomism appeared, the founders of which were Leucippus and his student Democritus. This teaching claimed that all objects are composed of the smallest particles. They were called atoms. And although this theory did not find scientific confirmation in antiquity, it was this doctrine that has become an aid to modern chemistry in modern times.
Egyptian Alchemy
Around the II century BC. e. Egyptian Alexandria became the new center of science. Alchemy arose there. This discipline originated as a synthesis of the theoretical ideas of Plato and the practical knowledge of the Hellenes. The history of chemistry of this period is characterized by an increased interest in metals. For them, a classic designation was invented in the form of then-known planets and celestial bodies. For example, silver was depicted in the form of the moon, and iron in the form of Mars. Since science at that time was inseparable from religion, alchemy, like any other scientific discipline, had its own patron god (Thoth).
One of the most significant scholars of the time was Bolos of Mendes, who wrote the treatise Physics and Mysticism. In it, he described metals and precious stones (their properties and value). Another alchemist, Zosim Panopolit, in his works investigated artificial methods for producing gold. In general, the history of the emergence of chemistry began with the search for this noble metal. Alchemists tried to get gold through experimentation or magic.
Egyptian alchemists studied not only the metals themselves, but also the ores from which they were mined. So the amalgam was discovered. This is a type of metal alloy with mercury, which has occupied a special place in the worldview of alchemists. Some considered it the primary substance. The discovery of a method for purifying gold using lead and nitrate can also be attributed to the same period.
Arab discoveries
If the history of chemistry began in Hellenistic countries, then it continued several centuries later during the Arab Golden Age, when scientists of the young Islamic religion were at the forefront of human science. These researchers have discovered many new substances, such as antimony or phosphorus. Most of the unique knowledge used in medicine and pharmacy for the development of drugs and potions. A sketch of the history of the development of chemistry without mentioning the philosopher's stone - a mythical substance that allows you to turn any substance into gold, is impossible.
Around 815, the Arab alchemist Jabir ibn Khayyan formulated the mercury-sulfur theory. She explained the origin of metals in a new way. These principles became fundamental for the alchemy of not only the Arab, but also the European school.
European alchemists of the Middle Ages
Thanks to the Crusades and the greater contact between West and East, Christian scholars finally learned about the discoveries of Muslims. Since the XIII century, it was the Europeans who took a confident leadership position in the study of substances. The history of chemistry of the Middle Ages owes much to Roger Bacon, Albert the Great, Raimund Lullus, etc.
Unlike Arabic science, European studies were saturated with the spirit of Christian mythology and religion. The main centers for the study of substances were monasteries. One of the first serious achievements of the monks was the opening of the ammonia. He was received by the famous theologian Bonaventure. The discoveries of the alchemists had little impact on society until Roger Bacon described gunpowder in 1249. Over time, this substance revolutionized the battlefields and in the ammunition of armies.
In the 16th century, alchemy received an impetus as a medical discipline. The works of Paralces, who discovered many drugs, are best known.
New time
The Reformation and the onset of New Time could not but affect chemistry. She increasingly got rid of religious nuances, becoming an empirical and experimental science. Robert Boyle became a pioneer in this area , who set a specific goal for chemistry - to find as many chemical elements as possible, as well as to study their composition and properties.
In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier formulated the oxygen theory of combustion. It became the foundation for the creation of a new scientific nomenclature. The history of chemistry, briefly described in his textbook Elementary Chemistry, made a breakthrough. Lavoisier compiled a new table of the simplest elements, based on the law of conservation of mass. Ideas and concepts about the nature of substances have changed. Now chemistry has become an independent rational science, based only on experiments and real evidence.
XIX century
At the beginning of the 19th century, John Dalton formulated the atomic theory of the structure of substances. In fact, he repeated and deepened the teachings of the ancient philosopher Democritus. In everyday life, a term such as atomic mass has appeared.
With the discovery of new laws, the history of the development of chemistry received a new impetus. In short, at the turn of the XVIII and XIX centuries. mathematical and physical theories appeared that easily and logically explained the diversity of substances on the planet. Dalton's discovery was confirmed when Swedish scientist Jens Jakob Berzelius linked atoms to the polarity of electricity. He also introduced into everyday life the notation of substances in the form of Latin letters.
Atomic mass
At a congress in Krlsruhe, chemists around the world recognized the fundamental atomic-molecular theory proposed by Stanislao Cannizzaro in 1860. With its help, the relative mass of oxygen was calculated. So the history of chemistry (it is very difficult to describe it briefly) has gone a long way over several decades.
The relative atomic mass allowed to systematize all the elements. In the 19th century, many options were proposed on how to do this in the most convenient and practical way. But best of all, the Russian scientist Dmitry Mendeleev succeeded. Its periodic system of elements, proposed in 1869, became the foundation for modern chemistry.
Modern chemistry
After several decades, the electron and the phenomenon of radioactivity were discovered . This confirmed long-standing assumptions about the fissility of an atom. In addition, these discoveries gave impetus to the development of borderline discipline between chemistry and physics. There were models of the structure of the atom.
A brief outline of the history of the development of chemistry cannot do without mentioning quantum mechanics. This discipline influenced the idea of the bonds within the substance. New methods for the analysis of scientific knowledge and theories have appeared. These were various variations of spectroscopy and the use of x-rays.
In recent years, the history of the development of chemistry, briefly described above, has been marked by great results in conjunction with biology and medicine. New substances are actively used in modern medicines, etc. The structure of proteins, DNA, and other important elements inside living organisms has been investigated. A brief outline of the history of the development of chemistry can be completed by the discovery of all new substances in the periodic table, which are obtained experimentally.