The Xinhai revolution in China was a natural consequence of the country's deep crisis, which swept it in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was at this time that the need for serious and profound changes in the state became apparent, but the then government was in no hurry with reforms, although it nevertheless took some steps in this direction. The coup itself was immediately preceded by a powerful uprising, which once again shocked the old socio-economic and political system.
Reform movement
The Xinhai revolution in China was, in principle, inevitable, given that the empire had long been in decline. This was clearly shown by the events of the previous century, during which the weakness and inability of the state to withstand both internal disasters and external pressure was revealed. It is a Taiping uprising and opium wars. These two major upheavals revealed the weakness of the central government, but, in addition, led part of the intelligentsia to the need for urgent transformations according to the Western European model, but with the preservation of traditional Chinese traditions and foundations.
Changes in the economy
The Xinhai revolution in China was caused by the historical need to change the entire socio-political system. It was for a radical renewal of society that advocates of a direction called "self-reinforcement" advocated. His main ideologist was Kang Yu-Wei. The latter criticized the imperial government and called for the practical reconstruction of the old system. This movement mainly covered local provinces, whose heads took vigorous measures to develop the economic sector. They carried out industrialization, built factories, developed the financial sector. Under these conditions, the center remained somewhat aloof, although in words and even in some cases it actually supported the reformist movement. However, the Xinhai revolution in China was inevitable precisely because the old system of the Manchu dynasty had become obsolete. At the turn of the century, her prestige was maintained at the expense of the empress Empress Cixi, however, even her nephew, Guangxu, who took the throne but was under her care, was a supporter of decisive changes.
Insurrection
The situation in the country at the beginning of the century was aggravated due to dissatisfaction of the local population with the penetration of foreigners into the state. First of all, this concerned missionaries, as well as entrepreneurs and financial figures. Residents of the Middle Kingdom believed that Western European influence negatively affects the development of the country. These sentiments led to harassment and attacks on foreigners throughout the country, which ultimately resulted in an ihettuan rebellion in 1900.
A massive movement to preserve national identity characterizes China during the awakening of Asia. The Xinhai revolution was its most striking manifestation, but it was preceded by a serious domestic political upheaval of the entire empire. At first, the Qing government hesitated whether it was worth supporting the uprising, but, in the end, sided with it. The crowding out of foreigners began throughout the country. But the leading Western European states quickly gathered a large army and suppressed the speech, and the Cixi government went to reconciliation. But this was only a temporary respite before a new explosion and the final fall of the empire.
On the eve of the coup
The Xinhai revolution in China is connected with the name of Sun Yat-sen, who at the turn of the century also joined the reformist movement. However, during the above-described events, there was no complete compromise between him and the supporters of self-reinforcement. He was a very educated person and was interested in fundamental changes in his homeland. It should be noted here that in the decade before the final fall of the empire, the position of Chinese youth became very active, who, having received education by Western European standards, sought to completely update the entire system.
As always, during the years of crisis throughout the country, societies and various organizations began to emerge, which promoted the reform slogan. This was their fundamental difference from the Iethuan, who did not advocate reform, but to eliminate the influence of foreigners, which essentially eliminated any innovations based on the Western European model, while the union created by Sun Yat-Sen proclaimed the need to overthrow the old dynasty and a complete update of the entire system.
Center Reforms
In these circumstances, the government could not stand aside. Realizing the seriousness of the reform movement, it took a number of measures (but not too serious) to relieve tension in society and demonstrate its readiness for change. So, for example, a number of steps were taken to modernize the army, legal proceedings, the traditional exam system for recruiting a bureaucratic apparatus was canceled, and a system of schools was created. Some of the most active supporters of the self-reinforcing policy that suffered at the turn of the century were returned from exile and pardoned (some were executed, others were disgraced and deported from the country). In addition, a draft constitution was developed and a proposal was put forward to convene a parliament. But all these promises did not sound convincing, and after the death in 1908 of Empress Cixi, the inevitability of a coup became obvious.
Preparation and coup
As mentioned above, the Xinhai revolution in China is associated with the name Sun Yat-sen. It was he who became its ideological leader and direct organizer. He created an alliance of his supporters, who gradually gained strength as the crisis of the empire grew. But most importantly, he created the ideology of the future order. Song formulated three basic principles that formed the basis of his doctrine of the future fate of China: "nationalism" - the overthrow of the alien, Manchu dynasty, "democracy" - the establishment of the republican democratic system and the principle of welfare. In addition, he created a new organization called Tongmenhui, which became the backbone of all supporters of decisive change. By 1911, the empire had a favorable situation for a coup. Peasants, dissatisfied with the economic crisis, periodically took up arms. The Center, in turn, took a number of measures to tighten control over the population, which caused even greater discontent. The Xinhai revolution in China took place in 1911: it began in the south of the country and took on a wide scope. The initial coup attempt, however, failed, but by the end of the same year, the empire had fallen.
First stage
The new army played an important role in the coup, among which there was active propaganda against the empire. But a direct impetus for the armed uprising was the fact that the state nationalized one of the largest railway construction companies. This caused a storm of indignation and discontent, especially exacerbated by the intervention of foreign states in the internal affairs of the country. The Xinhai Revolution in China called events that began in one of the southern provinces of the Sichuan Empire in September 1911. Initially, the rebels smashed the police stations and tax offices, but after the mass shooting of an unarmed demonstration in the region, the entire population rose, who even managed to capture the main city center. The success of the speech was largely due to the action of secret societies, which usually intensified during the crisis. Nevertheless, the government, at the cost of huge losses, still suppressed the rebellion, however, the anti-Manchu sentiment in the empire intensified.
Second phase
The Xinhai revolution in China, the years of which 1911-1912, continued with a new, quite powerful performance of the division in Wuchang. A performance was also being prepared here, but it became known in advance. Executions and arrests began, then an entire military unit went on the offensive. This happened in October 1911. The rebels seized the entire tri-city, formed their own government and called for the overthrow of the Qing dynasty, and the state itself was declared a republic.
Residents confiscated all government reserves on the ground, but most importantly, they managed to win over representatives of the new army, whose participation in many respects ensured the success of the rebellion. The center was seriously frightened by the scope of this movement and, summoning the talented general Yuan Shikai from exile , the government invited him to suppress the rebellion, but he, being also a good diplomat, refused because he did not want to look like an executioner. Then the government tried to convene a parliament and a government, but these measures did not lead to anything. The tough actions of the authorities in suppressing a number of cities turned the population even more against the center, and, in the end, the supreme advisory chamber sided with the Republicans, demanding an investigation.
Third stage
The Xinhai revolution in China, the reasons for which is a deep domestic political crisis and the weakening of imperial power, gained wide scope after many southern provinces joined the rebels. Under these conditions, the center again tried to negotiate with Shikai. In exchange for his services, he demanded that the following conditions be met: general amnesty, transfer of all power to him, convocation of a parliament and cabinet. While both sides were conducting these negotiations, a new rebellion broke out in October of that year in Shijiazhuang, which threatened to develop into a universal campaign against Beijing to overthrow the dynasty. Such a development of events did not suit Shikai, who could remain aloof. Only after the assassination of one of the leaders of the new army was the rebellion temporarily suspended.
Fourth stage
The Xinhai revolution in China, which should be briefly described in terms of its main periods, developed rapidly, largely due to the fact that army units joined the rebels. After the above events, a panic broke out in the empire’s capital: many representatives of the Manchu nobility hurriedly left the country. At this time, the figure of Shikai acquired special significance, which, in essence, having removed the emperor from power, took on the powers of the supreme ruler, becoming the prime minister.
However, the uprising continued to develop at a rapid pace. At the end of October, one after another, units of the Nanyang Army began to rebel. Meanwhile, Shikai enlisted the support of a number of Western powers, who hoped that he would crush the rebellion. However, the general himself was in no hurry to take active measures, because, trying to maintain his power and influence, he skillfully maneuvered between the Republicans and the imperial power. Both sides sought to enlist his support, and for some time did not go into open armed confrontation, hoping for a peaceful settlement. Shikai intimidated the imperial family with the possibility of their physical destruction, and threatened the Republicans with the suppression of the uprising. He insisted on the need for a constitutional monarchy, but the rebels demanded a republic, agreeing that the general himself became president. Meanwhile, the empire continued the process of separation from the center of a number of provinces.
Shikai Actions
The Xinhai Revolution in China, whose periods are extremely tight, entered a somewhat protracted phase in the fall of 1911 as a result of negotiations between the new Prime Minister, imperial authorities and Republicans. However, realizing that to strengthen his authority, he needed to take a decisive step, he organized a punitive campaign to the south in order to intimidate the rebels and show him his power. Taking Hanyang, he decided to stop there, since the complete defeat of the Republicans was not part of his plans, he hoped to continue to maneuver between them and the imperial forces.
After the events described above, the prime minister made a compromise with the rebels: he concluded an agreement with them, according to which the country was divided into two parts: the north, where the monarchy was preserved, and the south, where the republic was established. Shikai considered, together with the Republicans, the possibility of nominating his candidacy for the presidency, while he gradually limited the power and authority of the imperial leadership. With his submission, the aunt of the emperor, who did not enjoy influence, became the ruler. The lesson "Xinhai Revolution in China" is interesting in that it shows the swiftness of the coup and the irreversibility of the fall of the empire. However, the insurgent Republicans could not achieve complete unity. This was especially evident during the negotiations in December 1911, when the north acted cohesively and the south was divided. Due to the fact that negotiations with Shikai dragged on, the Republicans handed over power to Sun Yat-sen, but on the condition that he would give up his post if he could agree with the first. For a short period in power, he managed to rally the forces of the south into a single whole and create a temporary senate for administration. Then Shikai declared the need to preserve the monarchy, and the south, in turn, threatened him with a civil war.
Establishment of the Republic
The results of the Xinhai revolution in China were extremely important for the future fate of this country, since it led to the overthrow of the Qing dynasty. This happened in February 1915, and the general was proclaimed president.
Song Yat-Sen, in the interests of national unity, ceded his power to General Shikai, who convened parliament in the north. However, this body failed to create a government; moreover, the new ruler attempted to restore the empire, which met with sharp opposition in the country. The results of the Xinhai revolution in China are assessed differently by historians, many of whom note the absence of a unified program among the rebels, a common party and coherence of actions.
Shikai in 1915 proclaimed himself emperor and solemnly crowned in the palace, announcing the need for restoration of the old order. This led to a new revitalization of the republican south. After the Xinhai revolution in China, the country's foreign policy situation has changed. One of its most important consequences was the separation from the state of Mongolia, which gained independence.