The Westphalian system is an international policy order established in Europe in the 17th century. It laid the foundations of modern relations between countries and gave impetus to the formation of new nation-states.
Background of the Thirty Years War
The Westphalian system of international relations was formed as a result of the Thirty Years War of 1618–1648, during which the foundation of the previous world order was destroyed. Almost all the states of Europe were drawn into this conflict, but the basis was the confrontation of the Protestant monarchs of Germany and the Catholic Holy Roman Empire, supported by another part of the German princes. At the end of the 16th century, the rapprochement between the Austrian and Spanish branches of the Habsburg house created the prerequisites for the restoration of the empire of Charles V. But the independence of the German Protestant feudal lords, approved by the Ausburg world, was a hindrance to this. In 1608, these monarchs created the Protestant Union, supported by England and France. In contrast to it, in 1609 the Catholic League was created - an ally of Spain and the Pope.
The course of hostilities 1618-1648
After the Habsburgs strengthen their influence in the Czech Republic, which in fact leads to a violation of the rights of Protestants, an uprising breaks out in the country. With the support of the Protestant Union, a new king was elected in the country - Friedrich Pfalz. From this moment begins the first period of the war - Czech. It is characterized by the defeat of the Protestant forces, the confiscation of the king’s lands, the transition of the Upper Palatinate to the rule of Bavaria, and the restoration of Catholicism in the state.
The second period is Danish, which is characterized by the intervention of neighboring countries in the course of hostilities. Denmark was the first to enter the war with the aim of capturing the Baltic coast. During this period, the forces of the anti-Habsburg coalition suffer significant defeats from the Catholic League, and Denmark is forced to withdraw from the war. With the invasion of Northern Germany by King Gustav’s troops, the Swedish campaign begins. A radical change begins at the last stage - Franco-Swedish.
Westphalian world
After France entered the war, the advantage of the Protestant Union became obvious, this led to the need to seek a compromise between the parties. In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia was concluded, which consisted of two treaties prepared at the congresses in Münster and Osnabruck. He recorded a new balance of power in the world and authorized the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire into independent states (more than 300).
In addition, since the conclusion of the Westphalian Peace, the main form of political organization of society has become “the state-nation,” and the sovereignty of countries has become the dominant principle in international relations. The religious aspect in the treaty was considered as follows: in Germany there was an equation in the rights of Calvinists, Lutherans and Catholics.
Westphalian system of international relations
Its main principles began to look like this:
1. The form of political organization of society is a nation state.
2. Geopolitical inequality: a clear hierarchy of powers - from powerful to weaker.
3. The main principle of relations in the world is the sovereignty of nation-states.
4. The system of political balance.
5. The state is obliged to smooth out economic conflicts between its subjects.
6. Non-interference of countries in each other’s internal affairs.
7. A clear organization of stable borders between European states.
8. Non-global nature. Initially, the rules set by the Westphalian system were valid only in Europe. Over time, Eastern Europe, North America and the Mediterranean joined them.
The new system of international relations laid the foundation for globalization and cultural integration, marked the end of the isolation of individual states. In addition, its establishment led to the rapid development of capitalist relations in Europe.
The development of the Westphalian system. 1st stage
The multipolarity of the Westphalian system is clearly traced, as a result of which none of the states could achieve absolute hegemony, and the main struggle for political advantage was waged between France, England and the Netherlands.
During the reign of the “sun king” Louis XIV, France intensifies its foreign policy. It was characterized by the intention to gain new territories and constant interference in the affairs of neighboring countries.
In 1688, the so-called Great Alliance was created, the main position in which the Netherlands and England occupied. This alliance has directed its activities towards reducing the influence of France in the world. A little later, the other rivals of Louis XIV - Savoy, Spain and Sweden joined the Netherlands and England. They created the Augsburg League. As a result of the wars, one of the main principles that the Westphalian system proclaimed was the political equilibrium in international relations.
The evolution of the Westphalian system. 2nd stage
The influence of Prussia is growing. This country, located in the heart of Europe, has entered the struggle for the consolidation of German territories. If the plans of Prussia were realized, this could undermine the foundations on which the Westphalian system of international relations was based. At the initiative of Prussia, the Seven Years' War and the Austrian legacy were unleashed. Both conflicts undermined the principles of peaceful regulation that prevailed after the end of the Thirty Years War.
In addition to strengthening Prussia, the role of Russia in the world increased. This was illustrated by the Russian-Swedish war.
In general, with the end of the Seven Years War, a new period begins, which entered the Westphalian system.
3rd stage of the Westphalian system
After the French Revolution, the process of forming national countries begins. During this period, the state acts as a guarantor of the rights of its subjects, the theory of "political legitimacy" is being affirmed. Its main thesis is that a national country has a right to exist only when its borders correspond to ethnic territories.
After the end of the Napoleonic Wars at the Vienna Congress in 1815, they first talked about the need to abolish slavery, in addition, issues related to religious tolerance and freedom were discussed.
At the same time, the collapse of the principle that states that the affairs of subjects of the state are purely internal problems of the country is actually breaking down. This was illustrated by the Berlin Conference on Africa and conventions in Brussels, Geneva and The Hague.
Versailles-Washington International Relations System
This system was installed after the end of World War I and the regrouping of forces in the international arena. The basis of the new world order was the treaties concluded as a result of the Paris and Washington summits. In January 1919, the Paris Conference began its work. The negotiations between the USA, France, Great Britain, Japan and Italy were based on “14 points” of W. Wilson. It should be noted that the Versailles part of the system was created under the influence of political and military-strategic goals of the victorious states in the First World War. At the same time, the interests of the defeated countries and those that only appeared on the political map of the world (Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, etc.) were ignored. A series of treaties authorized the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Russian, German and Ottoman empires and determined the foundations of a new world order.
Washington Conference
The Versailles Act and treaties with German allies mainly concerned European states. In the years 1921-1922 the Washington Conference worked , which solved the problems of post-war settlement in the Far East. A significant role in the work of this congress was played by the USA and Japan, and the interests of England and France were also taken into account. Within the framework of the conference, a number of agreements were signed that determined the foundations of the Far Eastern subsystem. These acts constituted the second part of the new world order called the Washington system of international relations.
The main goal of the United States was to "open the doors" of Japan and China. During the conference, they succeeded in liquidating the union of Britain and Japan. With the end of the Washington Congress, the formation phase of a new world order ended. There were centers of power, which managed to develop a relatively stable system of relationships.
Basic principles and characteristics of international relations
1. Strengthening the leadership of the United States, Britain and France in the international arena and discrimination against Germany, Russia, Turkey and Bulgaria. Dissatisfaction with the outcome of the war of individual victorious countries. This predetermined the possibility of revenge.
2. The removal of the United States from European politics. In fact, the policy of self-isolation was proclaimed after the failure of W. Wilson's “14 points” program.
3. The transformation of the United States from a debtor to European states in the main creditor. Particularly vividly the degree of dependence of other countries on the United States demonstrated the plans of Dawes and Jung.
4. The creation in 1919 of the League of Nations, which was an effective tool for supporting the Versailles-Washington system. Its founders pursued personal interests in international relations (Great Britain and France tried to secure a pre-emptive position in world politics). In general, the League of Nations did not have a mechanism for monitoring the implementation of its decisions.
5. The Versailles system of international relations was global in nature.
The crisis of the system and its collapse
The crisis of the Washington subsystem manifested itself already in the 20s and was caused by the aggressive policy of Japan towards China. In the early 30s, Manchuria was occupied, where a puppet state was created. The League of Nations condemned the aggression of Japan, and she left this organization.
The crisis of the Versailles system predetermined the strengthening of Italy and Germany, in which the Nazis and Nazis came to power. The development of the system of international relations in the 1930s showed that the security system created around the League of Nations is absolutely ineffective.
The concrete manifestations of the crisis were the Anschluss of Austria in March 1938 and the Munich agreement in September of that year. From this time began a chain reaction of the collapse of the system. The year 1939 showed that the policy of appeasement is completely ineffective.
The Versailles-Washington system of international relations, which had many shortcomings and was absolutely unstable, collapsed with the outbreak of World War II.
The system of relations between states in the second half of the XX century
The foundations of the new world order after the war of 1939–1945 were worked out at the Yalta and Potsdam conferences. The congresses were attended by leaders of the countries of the Anti-Hitler coalition: Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt (later Truman).
In general, the Yalta-Potsdam system of international relations was distinguished by bipolarity, since the United States and the USSR took the leading position. This led to the formation of certain centers of power, which most of all influenced the character of the international system.
Yalta Conference
The participants in the Yalta Conference set as their main goal the elimination of German militarism and the creation of guarantees of peace, since discussions took place in conditions of war. At this congress, new borders of the USSR (along the Curzon line) and Poland were established. The zones of occupation in Germany were also distributed among the states of the anti-Hitler coalition. This led to the fact that the country for 45 years consisted of two parts - Germany and the GDR. In addition, there was a division of spheres of influence in the Balkan region. Greece came under British control; in Yugoslavia, the communist regime of I. B. Tito was established.
Potsdam Conference
At this congress, a decision was made on the demilitarization and decentralization of Germany. Domestic and foreign policy was under the control of the council, which included the commanders of the four victorious states in the war. The Potsdam system of international relations was based on new principles of cooperation between European states. A Council of Foreign Ministers was created. The main result of the congress was the demand for surrender of Japan.
Principles and characteristics of the new system
1. Bipolarity in the form of political and ideological confrontation between the "free world", led by the United States and socialist countries.
2. Confrontational in nature. Systemic confrontation of leading countries in the political, economic, military and other fields. This confrontation reached its climax during the Cold War.
3. The Yalta system of international relations did not have a specific legal basis.
4. The new order evolved during the proliferation of nuclear weapons. This led to the formation of a security mechanism. The concept of nuclear deterrence based on the fear of a new war appeared.
5. The creation of the UN, on whose decisions the whole Yalta-Potsdam system of international relations was based. But in the post-war period, the organization’s activity was to prevent an armed conflict between the USA and the USSR at the global and regional levels.
conclusions
In modern times, there were several systems of international relations. The Westphalian system has proven to be the most efficient and viable. Subsequent systems were confrontational in nature, which predetermined their rapid decay. The modern system of international relations is based on the principle of power equilibrium, which is a consequence of the individual security interests of all states.