Centuries, called the Middle Ages, take a different period in the history of each country. In the general case, as a rule, the interval from the fifth to the fifteenth centuries is referred to in this way, counting it from the year 476, when the Western Roman Empire fell.
The culture of Antiquity perished under the onslaught of barbarians. This is one of the reasons why the Middle Ages are so often called dark or gloomy. Along with the decay of the Roman Empire, the light of reason and the beauty of art disappeared. However, scientific discoveries and inventions in the Middle Ages are excellent proof that even in the most difficult times, mankind manages to preserve valuable knowledge and, moreover, develop it. Partly this was promoted by Christianity, but a large proportion of antique developments remained thanks to Arab scholars.
Eastern Roman Empire
Science in the Middle Ages primarily developed in monasteries. After the fall of Rome, Byzantium became the repository of ancient wisdom, where by that time the Christian church had already played a prominent, including political, role. The libraries of the monasteries of Constantinople kept the works of prominent thinkers of Greece and Rome. Bishop Leo, who worked in the 9th century, devoted much time to mathematics. He was among the first scientists who began to use letters as mathematical symbols, which in fact gives the right to call him one of the founders of algebra.
On the territory of the monasteries scribes created copies of ancient works, commentaries on them. The mathematics that developed under their arches formed the basis of architecture and made it possible to erect such a model of Byzantine art as the church of St. Sophia.
There is reason to believe that the Byzantines created maps traveling to China and India, they knew the geography and zoology. However, today most of the information about the state of science in the Middle Ages in the territory of the Eastern Roman Empire is unknown to us. She is buried in the ruins of cities, constantly subjected to enemy attacks throughout the entire period of Byzantium.
Science in the Arab Countries
Many ancient knowledge was developed outside of Europe. The Arab caliphate, which developed under the influence of ancient culture, actually saved knowledge not only from barbarians, but also from the church, which, although it favored the preservation of wisdom in monasteries, welcomed far from all scientific works, trying to protect itself from the penetration of heresy. After some time, the ancient knowledge, supplemented and processed, returned to Europe.
A huge number of sciences developed on the territory of the Arab Caliphate in the Middle Ages: geography, philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, optics, and natural sciences.
Figures and planetary motion
Astronomy was largely based on the famous Ptolemy's treatise "Almagest." It is interesting that the scientist’s work got such a name after it was translated into Arabic and then returned to Europe. Arab astronomers not only preserved Greek knowledge, but also increased them. So, they assumed that the Earth is a ball, and were able to measure the arc of the meridian in order to calculate the size of the planet. Arab scientists gave the name to many stars, thereby expanding the descriptions given in the Almagest. In addition, they built observatories in several large cities.
The medieval discoveries and inventions of the Arabs in the field of mathematics were also quite extensive. It is in Islamic states that algebra and trigonometry originate. Even the word "figure" is of Arab origin ("cipher" means "zero").
Trade relationship
Many scientific discoveries and inventions in the Middle Ages were borrowed by Arabs from the peoples with whom they constantly traded. Through Islamic countries, a compass, gunpowder, and paper came to Europe from India and China. The Arabs, in addition, compiled a description of the states through which they had to travel, as well as the peoples met, including the Slavs.
Arab countries have also become a source of cultural change. It is believed that it was here that the plug was invented. From the territory of Islamic states, it first came to Byzantium, and then to Western Europe.
Theological and secular science
Scientific discoveries and inventions in the Middle Ages on the territory of Christian Europe mainly appeared in monasteries. Until the eighth century, however, the knowledge that was paid attention to was related to sacred texts and truths. Secular sciences began to be taught in schools at the cathedrals only during the reign of Charlemagne. Grammar and rhetoric, astronomy and logic, arithmetic and geometry, as well as music (the so-called seven free arts) were initially available only to the nobility, but gradually education began to spread to all sectors of society.
By the beginning of the XI century, schools at monasteries began to be transformed into universities. Secular educational institutions appeared gradually in France, England, the Czech Republic, Spain, Portugal, and Poland.
Fibonacci mathematician, naturalist Vitellin, monk Roger Bacon made a special contribution to the development of science. The latter, in particular, suggested that the speed of light has a finite value and adhered to a hypothesis close to the wave theory of its propagation.
Relentless Movement of Progress
Technical discoveries and inventions in the 11th – 15th centuries gave the world a lot, without which it would be impossible to achieve the level of progress that is characteristic of humanity now. The mechanisms of water and windmills have become more advanced. The bell, which measured time, was replaced by a mechanical watch. In the XII century, sailors began to use a compass for orientation. Gunpowder, invented in China in the VI century and imported by the Arabs, began to play a significant role in European military campaigns only in the XIV century, when the cannon was also invented.
In the XII century, Europeans also became acquainted with paper. Production facilities were opened that made it from various suitable materials. In parallel, xylography (wood engraving) developed, which was gradually replaced by typography. Its appearance in European countries dates from the 15th century.
The inventions and scientific discoveries of the 17th century, as well as all subsequent ones, are largely based on the achievements of medieval scientists. Alchemical searches, attempts to find the edge of the world, the desire to preserve the heritage of Antiquity made possible the progress of mankind in the Renaissance and the New Age. Scientific discoveries and inventions in the Middle Ages contributed to the formation of the familiar world. But because, perhaps, it will be unfair to call this period of history hopelessly gloomy, remembering only the Inquisition and church dogmas of that time.