Biology is the science of the general properties of all living things. It began its functioning as an independent discipline relatively recently, at the end of the 19th century. Science owes its appearance to the problematic that existed between the definition of the concepts of living and nonliving natural bodies. Despite the late emergence of biology, this issue has worried a person for a long time. It rose in ancient times, in the Middle Ages, as well as in the Renaissance.
Due to the fact that the word "biology" began to be used only at the end of the 19th century, such scientists as biologists did not exist before. The tech who studied and developed the discipline about nature was called naturalists, doctors or experts in natural science during his lifetime.
Who were so widely known biologists today ?
For instance:
- Gregor Mendel as a monk.
- Karl Linney as a doctor.
“Charles Darwin is a wealthy gentleman.”
- Louis Pasteur is a chemist.
Antiquity
Aristotle originally laid the foundations of knowledge about plants and animals in his writings. A major role in the development of biology was played by his student Theophast.
Of great importance for gaining knowledge about living organisms were the works of Dioscorides. This ancient thinker compiled a description of various medicinal substances, almost six hundred of which were plants. In the same period, Pliny also created, collecting information about natural bodies.
Despite the fact that the merits of all thinkers of the past played a significant role in the development of biology, Aristotle left the most impressive mark in the history of this discipline. He wrote a huge number of works that were devoted to animals. In his writings, Aristotle addressed the issues of cognition of individuals representing the terrestrial fauna. The Thinker developed his own principles for classifying animal groups. It was made on the basis of the essential properties of species. Aristotle also considered the development and reproduction of animals.
Middle Ages
Doctors living in this historical period included in their practice a large number of achievements of antiquity. However, the Roman Empire, captured by the Arabs, fell into decay. And the conquerors translated the works of Aristotle and other ancient thinkers into their own language. But this knowledge was not lost.
Arab medicine of the Middle Ages contributed to the development of the discipline of life. All this happened in the 8-13 centuries during the period of the so-called Golden Islamic Age. For example, Al-Jahiz, who lived in 781-869, expressed thoughts about food chains and the existence of evolution. But the Arabian founder of botany is still considered the Kurdish author Al-Dinawari (828-896). He described more than 637 species of various plants, and also discussed their phases of development and growth.
Until the 17th century, the reference book of all European physicians was the work of the renowned doctor Avicenna, where the concepts of pharmacology and clinical research were first introduced. Also noteworthy are the studies of the Spanish Arab Ibn Zuhra. By opening, he proved that scabies is caused by the presence of a subcutaneous parasite. He also introduced experimental surgery and conducted the first medical studies on animals.
In the Middle Ages, some European scientists also gained fame. These included Albert the Great, Hildegard of Bingen, as well as Frederick II, who compiled the canon of natural history. This work was widely used for study at the very first European universities, where medicine was in second place after theology and philosophy.
Rebirth
Only during the transition of Europe to the heyday did it become possible to revive interest in physiology and natural history. Biologists of that time widely studied the plant world. Thus, Fuchs, Brunfels and some other authors have issued numerous publications devoted to this topic. These works marked the beginning of a full-scale description of plant life.
The Renaissance was the beginning of the development of modern anatomy - a discipline based on the opening of human bodies. The impetus to this trend was given by the book of Vesalius.
Such well-known artists as Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Durer also contributed to the development of biology. They often worked together with naturalists and were interested in the exact structure of the body of animals and humans, displaying their detailed anatomical structure.
Alchemists also contributed to the study of nature. So, Paracelsus conducted experiments with biological and pharmacological sources of drug production.
Seventeenth century
The most important period of this century is the formation of natural history, which has become the basis:
- classification of plants and animals;
- further development of anatomy;
- opening of the second circle of blood circulation;
- the beginning of microscopic studies;
- discoveries of microorganisms;
- the first description of red blood cells and sperm of animals, as well as plant cells.
During the same period, an English doctor, William Harvey , made a number of important discoveries during the experiments on dissecting animals and monitoring blood circulation. The researcher achieved the following:
- found the presence of a venous valve that does not allow blood to flow in the opposite direction;
- discovered that blood circulation is carried out in addition to a large and in a small circle;
- showed the presence of isolation of the left and right ventricles.
In the 17th century, a completely new field of research began to take shape. It was associated with the advent of the microscope.
The inventor of this device, an artisan from Holland, Anthony van Levenguk, made independent observations, and sent their results to the Royal Society of London. Levenguk described and sketched a large number of microscopic creatures (bacteria, ciliates, etc.), as well as human sperm and red blood cells.
Eighteenth century
In this century, physiology, anatomy, and natural history continued to develop. All this created the prerequisites for the emergence of biology. Significant events for the discipline on the nature of living bodies were the studies of Caspar Friedrich Wolf and Albrecht von Haller. The results of these works greatly expanded knowledge in the field of plant development and animal embryology.
The origin of biology
Until the 19th century, this term could be found in the works of some natural scientists. However, at that time its meaning was completely different. And only at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries did three authors independently use the term “biology” in the sense in which it is familiar to us now. Scientists Lamarck, Trevinarus and Burdakh have designated the word science, which describes the general features of living bodies.
Nineteenth century
The most significant events for biology in this period were:
- the formation of paleontology;
- the emergence of the biological basis of stratigraphy;
- the emergence of cellular theory:
- the formation of comparative embryology and anatomy.
19th-century biologists began to fight infectious diseases. So, the British doctor Jenner invented the vaccine, and the result of the research of Robert Koch was the discovery of the causative agent of tuberculosis and the creation of many types of drugs.
Revolutionary discovery
The central event in biology that occurred in the second half of the 19th century was the publication of Charles Darwin's book “On the Origin of Species”. The scientist developed this question for twenty-one years, and only after he was convinced of the correctness of the conclusions obtained, he decided to publish his work. The book was a huge success. But at the same time, it excited people's minds, as it completely contradicted the ideas about life on Earth that were stated in the Bible. So, the scientist biologist Darwin argued that the evolution of species continued on our planet for many millions of years. And according to the Bible, six days were enough to create the world.
Another discovery of Charles Darwin in the field of biology was the assertion that all living organisms are fighting each other for habitat and food. The scientist noted that even within one species there are individual individuals that have special characteristics. These distinctive properties give animals an increased chance of survival. Further, special characters are transmitted to the offspring and gradually become common to the whole species. Weaker and unfit animals at the same time die out. A similar process, Darwin called natural selection.
The greatest merit of this scientist is that he solved the most important problem of biology related to the question of the origin and development of the organic world. Today, the entire history of this discipline is conditionally divided into two periods. The first one was before Darwin. He was characterized by an unconscious desire to define an evolutionary principle. The second stage in the development of biology began after Darwin published his greatest work. From this moment, scientists continued to develop the evolutionary principle already consciously.
The activities of Russian researchers
Many important discoveries in the field of the discipline about living organisms were made by domestic biologists. So, in 1820, P. Vishnevsky was the first to suggest the presence of a special substance in anti-scurvy products. It is it, according to the scientist, that contributes to the proper functioning of the body.
Another Russian scientist - N. Lunin - discovered vitamins in 1880. He proved that the composition of food contains certain elements that are vital for the health of the whole organism. The term “vitamin” itself appeared when two Latin roots were combined. The first of them - “Vita” - means “life”, and the second - “amine” - is translated as “nitrogen compound”.
Significantly increased interest in natural science among Russian scientists in the 50-60s of the 19th century. It was caused by the propaganda of its worldview by revolutionary democrats. An important factor was the world development of the natural sciences. At that time, such domestic biologists as K. Timiryazev and P. Sechenov, I. Mechnikov and S. Botkin, I. Pavlov and many other doctors and natural scientists began their work.
Great physiologist
Pavlov - a biologist - gained wide fame after conducting studies of the central nervous system. These works of the great physiologist became the starting point for the further study of various mental phenomena.
The main merit of Pavlov was the development of the latest principles for that time, studying the activity of the body inextricably linked with the external environment. A similar approach was the basis for the development of not only biology, but also medicine, psychology and pedagogy. The works of the great physiologist were the source of neurophysiology - the doctrine of higher nervous activity.
Twentieth Century
At the beginning of the 20th century, biologists continued to make an invaluable contribution to the history of the discipline of living organisms. So, in 1903, the term hormones first appeared. It was introduced into biology by Ernest Starling and William Bayliss. In 1935, the concept of "ecosystem" appeared. He was introduced to the discipline by Arthur J. Tensley. This term denoted a complex environmental block. Also, biologists continued to work on the definitions of all stages of the state of a living cell.
A lot of researchers worked in our country. Russian biologists have made a great contribution to the development of the discipline of living bodies. Among them are the following:
- M. S. Tsvet, the first to establish the existence of two modifications of chlorophyll;
- N.V. Timofeev-Resovsky, one of the founders of radiobiology, who established the dependence of the radiation dose on the intensity of mutation processes;
- V.F. Kuprevich, who discovered extracellular enzymes secreted at the ends of the root system of higher plants;
- N.K. Koltsov - the founder of experimental biology in Russia.
Many names of biologists from Western Europe are also included in the history of the discipline about living bodies. So, the beginning of the century was marked by the discovery of chromosomes as cellular structures that carry genetic potential. This conclusion was reached independently by many researchers.
In 1910-1915, famous biologists , led by Thomas Hunt Morgan, developed the chromosome theory of heredity. In the 1920s and 1930s, population genetics was born. In the second half of the century, the discoveries of scientists led to the creation of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology. Considerable contribution to this matter was also made by Soviet biologists.
Great traveler and naturalist
A huge role in the development of the discipline of living bodies was played by the biologist Vavilov. He is considered a plant grower and geneticist, breeder and applied botanist, geographer and traveler. However, the main direction of his life path was the study and development of biology.
Vavilov was a traveler who discovered not new countries at all. He introduced the world to previously unknown plants that struck contemporaries with the diversity of their forms. Many Russian biologists noted that he was a real visionary in his field. In addition, Vavilov was a wonderful organizer, statesman and public figure. This scientist discovered an equally fundamental law in the field of biology, which for chemistry is the Mendeleev periodic system.
What is the main merit of Vavilov? In the law of similarity series discovered by him and in the assertion of the existence of patterns in the vast world of fauna, which made it possible to predict the emergence of new species.
Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky
From the school curriculum, we are well aware of such surnames as Newton and Galileo, Einstein and Darwin. All of them were brilliant seers who opened up new horizons for people in the knowledge of society and nature. Many such geniuses were in the 20th century. Among them is the biologist Vernadsky. It can be safely attributed to the number of those researchers who not only saw, but also realized new, previously unknown phenomena.
Vernadsky’s work covers a fairly wide range of issues of natural science. This is the sphere of general geochemistry, and determining the age of a rock, and the role of living bodies in processes of a geochemical nature. Vernadsky put forward the theory of the so-called genetic mineralogy, and also developed the question of isomorphism. Also, the scientist is considered the founder of biogeochemistry. According to his ideas, the totality of all living organisms in the biosphere constantly involves matter of inorganic origin in a continuous cycle. This process is facilitated by the transformation of solar radiation.
Vernadsky investigated the chemical composition, as well as the prevalence of plant and animal organisms. Similar work was carried out to study the migration processes of chemical elements in the thickness of the earth's crust. Among the discoveries of Vernadsky is an indication of the existence of organisms that are concentrators of calcium, silicon, iron, etc.