The Roman Empire left its imperishable mark on all those European lands where its victorious legions fought. The stone ligament, preserved to this day, can be seen in many countries. These are the walls designed to protect citizens, the roads along which troops moved, numerous aqueducts and bridges built across turbulent rivers and much more.
general information
The army has always played a huge role in the history of the Roman Empire. Throughout its evolution, it has evolved from a barely trained militia into a professional, permanent army that had a clear organization, including headquarters, officers, a huge arsenal of weapons, a supply structure, military engineering units, etc. In Rome, military service men between the ages of seventeen and forty-five were selected.
Citizens from 45 to 60 years of age during the war could carry out garrison service. Great attention was paid to the training of troops. The army of the Roman Empire, which had rich combat experience, possessed the best weapon at that time, and strict military discipline was observed in it. The main branch of the army was infantry. The cavalry, which played a supporting role, “helped” her. The main organizational and tactical unit in the army was the legion, originally consisting of centuries, and already from the 2nd century. to our reckoning - from maniples. The latter possessed relative tactical independence and increased the maneuverability of the legion.
Roman legion
Since the middle of the 2nd century BC e. the empire began the transition from a militia army to a permanent one. There were 10 cohorts in the legion at that time. Each of them included 3 maniples. A battle formation was built in two lines, each with 5 cohorts. During the reign of Julius Caesar, the Legion included 3-4 thousand soldiers, including two hundred and three hundred horsemen, wall and throwing equipment and a convoy. Augustus Octavian, this number was unified. There were six thousand people in every legion. At that time, the army had twenty-five such units at the disposal of the emperor. Unlike the ancient Greek phalanxes, the Roman legions were highly mobile, could fight on rough terrain and quickly lay out forces during the battle. Light infantry supported by cavalry was stationed on the flanks in battle order.
The history of the wars of Ancient Rome indicates that the empire also used the fleet, but assigned the latter an auxiliary value. The commanders with great skill did the maneuver of the troops. It was the way of war that Rome laid the foundation for the use of the reserve in battle.
Legionnaires constantly erected structures, even when the borders of Ancient Rome began to decrease gradually. During the reign of Hadrian, when the empire was much more concerned about the consolidation of land than conquest, the unclaimed fighting distance of soldiers who had been torn away from homes and families for a long time, was wisely sent into a constructive direction.
Rome's First Samnite War - Reasons
The growing population forced the empire to expand the borders of its possessions. By this time, Rome had already managed to finally seize the dominant position in the Latin Union. After the suppression in 362-345 BC. e. the uprising of the Latins, the empire finally established itself in central Italy. The right was transferred to Rome not by turns, but by constantly appointing a commander in chief in the Latin Union and finally resolving issues of peace. The empire populated the newly occupied territories for the colonies mainly with its citizens, it always received the lion's share of all military production, etc.
But the headache of Rome was a mountain tribe of Samnites. It constantly disturbed the raids of his possession and the land of his allies.
At that time, the Samnite tribes were divided into two large parts. One of them, descending from the mountains to the Campania valley, assimilated with the local population and adopted the Etruscan lifestyle. The second part remained in the mountains and lived there in conditions of military democracy. In 344 BC in. the Embassy of Campanians arrived in Rome from the city of Capua with a proposal of peace. The complexity of the situation lies in the fact that the empire from 354 BC. e. a peace treaty was concluded with mountainous Samnites - the worst enemies of their lowland relatives. The temptation to annex a large and rich region to Rome was great. Rome found a way out: in fact, it gave the Campanians citizenship and at the same time retained their autonomy. At the same time, diplomats were sent to the Samnites with a request not to touch the new citizens of the empire. The latter, realizing that they want to circumvent them cunningly, answered with a gross rejection. Moreover, they began to rob the Campanians with greater force, which became the pretext for the Samnite war with Rome. Total battles with this mountain tribe, according to the historian Titus Livius, were three. However, some scholars question this source, saying that there are many inconsistencies in its narratives.
Hostilities
The history of the war of Rome, presented by Titus Livius, looks briefly as follows: two forces spoke out on the Samnites. At the head of the first was Aulus Cornelius Koss, and the second - Mark Valery Korv. The latter stationed an army at the foot of Mount Le Havre. It was here that the first battle of Rome against the Samnites took place. The battle was very stubborn: it lasted until late in the evening. Even Korva himself, who launched an attack at the head of the cavalry, could not turn the tide of the battle. And only after dark, when the Romans made the last, desperate throw, they managed to crush the formation of hill tribes and put them to flight.
The second battle of Rome’s first Samnite war took place at Saticula. According to legend, the legion of a powerful empire, due to the leader’s carelessness, was almost ambushed. Samnites lurk in a wooded narrow gorge. And only thanks to the courageous assistant to the consul, who, with a small detachment, was able to occupy the hill dominating the district, the Romans escaped. The Samnites, frightened by a blow from the rear, did not dare to attack the main army. The hitch gave her the opportunity to safely leave the gorge.
The third battle of Rome’s first Samnite war was won by the legion. She passed under the city of Suessula.
The Second and Third Samnite Wars
The new military campaign caused the parties to intervene in the internal struggle of Naples, one of the campaign cities. Rome supported the elite, and the Samnites sided with the Democrats. After the betrayal of the nobility, the Roman army captured the city and transferred hostilities to the Samnite federation lands. Having no experience in military operations in the mountains, the troops, having been ambushed in the Kavdinsky gorge (321 BC), were captured. This humiliating defeat was the reason that the Roman generals began to divide the legion into 30 maniples in each of 2 hundred. Thanks to this reorganization, the conduct of hostilities in the mountainous Samnia was facilitated. The long second war of Rome with the Samnites ended in a new victory. As a result, some lands of the Campanians, Eqvs, and Volks were transferred to the empire.
The Samnites, who dreamed of getting revenge for previous defeats, became part of the anti-Roman coalition of Gauls and Etruscans. Initially, the latter conducted very successfully large-scale military operations, however, in 296 BC. e. near Sentin, she lost in a major battle. The defeat forced the Etruscans to conclude a settlement, and the Gauls retreated to the north.
Left alone, the Samnites could not resist the power of the empire. By 290 BC e. after the third war with the hill tribes, the federation was dissolved, and each community began separately to conclude an unequal peace with the enemy.
The war of Rome with Carthage - briefly
Victories in battles have always been the main source of the empire's existence. The wars of Rome provided a continuous increase in the size of state lands - ager publicus. The occupied territories were then distributed among the soldiers - citizens of the empire. Since the proclamation of the Republic of Rome had to conduct continuous conquering battles with neighboring tribes of the Greeks, Latins, Italics. It took more than two centuries to integrate Italy into the republic. Incredibly fierce is the Tarento War, which took place in 280-275 BC. e., in which Pyrrhus, the Epirus Basileus, who was not inferior to Alexander of Macedon in military talent, opposed Rome in support of Tarentum. Despite the fact that at the beginning of the war, the Republican army was defeated, in the end it came out victorious. In 265 BC e. the Romans managed to capture the Etruscan city of Velusna (Volsinia), which became the final conquest of Italy. And already in 264 BC. e. the landing of the army in Sicily began the war of Rome with Carthage. The Punic wars got their name from the Phoenicians with whom the empire fought. The fact is that the Romans called them Punians. In this article we will try to talk as much as possible about the first, second and third stage, as well as present the reasons for the wars of Rome with Carthage. It must be said that this time the enemy was a rich slave-owning state, which was also engaged in maritime trade. Carthage at that time flourished, not only as a result of intermediary trade, but also due to the development of many types of crafts that made its inhabitants famous. And this circumstance haunted his neighbors.
Causes
Looking ahead, it must be said that the wars of Rome with Carthage (years 264-146 BC. E.) took place with some interruptions. There were only three of them.
The causes of the wars of Rome with Carthage were numerous. Since the middle of the third century BC. e. and almost until the middle of the second century before our reckoning, this highly developed slave-owning state was at enmity with the empire, fighting for supremacy over the Western Mediterranean. And if Carthage was always connected mainly with the sea, then Rome was a land city. Courageous residents of the city, founded by Romulus and Remus, worshiped Heavenly Father - Jupiter. They were sure that they could gradually take control of virtually all neighboring cities, and therefore they reached rich Sicily, located in southern Italy. It was here that the interests of the sea Carthaginians and the land Romans crossed, who tried to get this island into the sphere of their full influence.
First military action
The Punic War began after Carthage attempted to strengthen its influence in Sicily. Rome could not come to terms with it. The fact is that he also needed this province, which supplied bread throughout Italy. And in general, the presence of such a powerful neighbor with exorbitant appetite absolutely did not suit the growing territorially Roman Empire.
As a result, in 264 BC, the Romans were able to capture the Sicilian city of Messana. The path of Syracuse trade was cut. Bypassing the Carthaginians on land, the Romans for some time still allowed them to appear at sea. However, the latter's numerous raids on the Italian coast forced the empire to create its own fleet.
The first war of Rome with Carthage began a thousand years after the Trojan War. It did not even help that the enemy of the Romans possessed a very powerful army of mercenaries and a huge fleet.
The war lasted more than twenty years. During this time, Rome managed not only to defeat Carthage, which practically abandoned Sicily, but also forced to pay itself a huge indemnity. The first Punic War ended in victory for Rome. However, hostilities did not end there, as the adversaries, continuing to develop and grow stronger, were looking for ever new lands to establish a sphere of influence.
Hannibal - “The Grace of Baal”
Immediately after the end of the first Punic War of Rome and Carthage, the latter entered into a heavy struggle with the forces of mercenaries, which lasted almost three and a half years. The reason for the uprising was the capture of Sardinia. The mercenaries succumbed to Rome, which by force took away from Carthage not only this island, but also Corsica. Hamilcar Barca - the military leader and the famous Carthaginian admiral, who considered war inevitable with the invader, seized possession for his country in the south and east of Spain, thereby, as if compensating for the loss of Sardinia and Sicily. Thanks to him, as well as his son-in-law and successor named Hasdrubal, a beautiful army was created in this territory, consisting mainly of natives. The Romans, who soon drew attention to the strengthening of the enemy, were able to conclude an alliance in Spain with such Greek cities as Sagunt and Emporia and demand that the Carthaginians should not cross the Ebro River.
Twenty years will pass before the son of Hamilcar Bark - the experienced Hannibal will once again lead the army to the Romans. By 220 BC, he managed to completely capture the Pyrenees. After traveling by land to Italy, Hannibal, crossing the Alps, invaded the territory of the Roman Empire. His army was so strong that the enemy lost all the battles. In addition, according to the stories of historians, Hannibal was a cunning and unprincipled military leader who widely used both deception and meanness. There were many bloodthirsty Gauls in his army. For many years, Hannibal, terrorizing Roman territories, did not dare to attack the beautifully fortified city, founded by Remus and Romulus.
At the request of the Government of Rome to extradite Hannibal, Carthage refused. This was the reason for new hostilities. As a result, the second war of Rome with Carthage began. To strike from the north, Hannibal overcame the snowy Alps. It was an unusual military operation in its complexity. His war elephants looked especially frightening in the snowy mountains . Hannibal reached Cisalpine Gaul with only half his troops. But even this did not help the Romans, who lost the first battles. Publius Scipio was defeated on the banks of Ticino, and Tiberius Simpronius on Trebius. At Trasimen Lake, under Etruria, Hannibal destroyed the army of Guy Flaminius. But he did not even try to get closer to Rome, realizing that there were very few chances to seize the city. Therefore, Hannibal moved east, devastating and robbing all the southern regions along the way. Despite such a victorious march and partial defeat of the Roman troops, the hopes of the son of Hamilcar Bark did not materialize. The vast majority of Italian allies did not support him: with the exception of units, the rest remained loyal to Rome.
The second war of Rome with Carthage was very different from the first. Only their name was common. Historians qualify the first as predatory on both sides, since it was deployed for possessing such a rich island as Sicily. The second war of Rome with Carthage was such only by the Phoenicians, while the Roman army carried out only the liberation mission. The results in both cases are the same - the victory of Rome and the huge indemnity imposed on the enemy.
The last Punic war
The reason for the third Punic war is the trade competition of the warring parties in the Mediterranean. The Romans managed to provoke a third conflict and finally finish off the annoying enemy. The reason for the attack was void. The legions landed again in Africa. Having besieged Carthage, they demanded the withdrawal of all inhabitants and the destruction of the city to the ground. The Phoenicians refused to voluntarily fulfill the demands of the aggressor and decided to fight. However, after two days of fierce resistance, the ancient city fell, and the rulers took refuge in the temple. When the Romans reached the center, they saw how the Carthaginians set fire to it and burned it in it. The Phoenician commander, who led the city defense, rushed to the feet of the invaders and began to ask for mercy. According to legend, his proud wife, having performed the last ritual of sacrifice in her native dying city, threw their young children into the fire, and then she herself entered a flaming monastery.
Effects
Of the 300 thousand inhabitants of Carthage, fifty thousand remained alive. The Romans sold them into slavery, and destroyed the city, betraying the place on which he stood, to a curse and completely plowing. Thus ended the exhausting Punic Wars. There has always been competition between Rome and Carthage, but the empire triumphed. Victory made it possible to extend Roman rule throughout the coast.