How many all theories can a modern man see and hear! Moreover, they can be of very different directions. And this is not surprising, because there are different types of theories. This is due to the fact that different approaches are used to create them, and they themselves are aimed at various aspects of the activity of human society. So, there is a political theory, mathematical, economic, social. But let's look at it all in more detail.
general information
In the methodology of science, the word "theory" can be understood in two main senses: narrow and wide. The first of them implies the highest form of organization of knowledge, which gives a holistic view of the essential relationships and patterns in a certain area of โโreality. In this case, the scientific theory is characterized by the presence of systemic harmony, a logical relationship between the elements, the derivability of its content from a certain set of concepts and statements (but this should be done according to certain logical and methodological rules). This is all that organizes the basic theory. But what is meant by it in the broad sense of the word?
The theory of science in this case is a complex of ideas, ideas and views that are aimed at interpreting a certain phenomenon (or a group of similar incidents). Do not find anything surprising? If you think about it, then in this case, almost every person has his own theories. In fairness, it is worth saying that for the most part they belong to the sphere of world psychology. Thanks to them, a person organizes his idea of โโjustice, goodness, love, the meaning of life, gender relations, posthumous existence, and the like.
Why do we need a theory?
They act as original methodological โcellsโ of scientific knowledge. The modern theory contains the available knowledge, as well as the procedures by which it was obtained and justified. That is, it contains the main "building" material - knowledge. They are connected by judgments. Already from them, according to the rules of logic, make conclusions.
Regardless of what types of theories are considered, they should always be based on one or even several ideas (hypotheses) that offer solutions to a particular problem (or even their whole complex). That is, in order to be called a full-fledged science, the presence of only one well-developed theory is enough. An example is geometry.
Is theory easy to comprehend?
To begin with, we will deal with concepts, conclusions, problems and hypotheses. They can often fit in one sentence. For theory, this is almost impossible. So, to set forth and justify it, even whole works are often written. It is enough to give as an example the theory of universal gravitation, which was formulated by Newton. To substantiate it, he wrote a voluminous work in 1987, which is called "The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy." It took him more than 20 years to write. But this does not mean that the basic theories are so complex that they cannot be understood by an ordinary citizen.
First of all, it should be noted that the theory can be stated in a somewhat schematized (and, accordingly, compressed) version. Such an approach stipulates that everything secondary, insignificant, will be removed, and often justifying arguments and supporting facts will be taken out of the brackets. In addition, as mentioned above, each person is inherent to build their own theories, which are a generalization of their own experience and its analysis. Therefore, if you want to comprehend science, you will have to complicate frequently performed tasks.
Types of Theories
They are divided on the basis of their structure, which in turn is based on methods of constructing theoretical knowledge. These types of theories are distinguished:
- Axiomatic.
- Inductive.
- Hypothetical-deductive.
Each of them uses its own base, which is presented in the form of three different approaches.
Axiomatic theories
Such theories have been established in science since antiquity. They are the personification of the rigor and accuracy of scientific knowledge. The most famous representatives of this type are mathematical theories. As an example, formatted arithmetic can be given. Besides her, considerable attention was also paid to formal logic and some branches of physics (thermodynamics, electrodynamics and mechanics). A classic example in this case is Euclidean geometry. She was often turned not only for knowledge, but also as an example of scientific rigor. What is important within this species?
Three components are of most interest here: postulates (axioms), deduced meaning (theorems), and proofs (rules, conclusions). Since then, the mechanism for finding and designing a solution has significantly changed. The 20th century was especially fruitful in this regard. Then both new approaches and a fundamental level of knowledge were developed (probability theory can be cited as an example). They continue to be developed and created now, but so far there is nothing that could radically turn our lives around.
Inductive Theories
It is believed that they are absent in their pure form, since they do not provide apodictic and logically sound knowledge. Therefore, many say that they should mean inductive methods. They are characteristic primarily for natural science. This state of affairs was due to the fact that it is here that one can begin with experiments and facts, and end with theoretical generalizations.
Although it should be recognized that several centuries ago, inductive theories were very popular. But because of the size of spending on scientific research, they faded into the background. After all, think about how the theory of probability would be formulated if we approached it in a practical way! Inductive inference usually begins with an analysis and comparison of the data obtained during the experiment or observation. If something similar or common is found in them, then they are generalized as a universal position.
Hypothetical-deductive theories
They are specific to the natural sciences. The creator of this species is Galileo Galilei. Besides this, he also laid the foundations of experimental natural science. Subsequently, they found application among a large number of physicists, which contributed to the consolidation of the established glory. Their essence lies in the fact that the researcher makes bold assumptions, the truth of which is uncertain. Then, the consequences are deduced from the hypotheses using the deductive method . This process continues until such a statement is received that it can be compared with experience. If an empirical test confirms its adequacy, it is concluded that the original hypotheses were correct.
What components should a scientific theory have?
There are many classifications. In order not to get confused, we take as a basis the one that Shvyrev proposed. The following components are mandatory on it:
- The original empirical basis. This includes facts and knowledge recorded up to this point, which were obtained as a result of experiments and require justification.
- The initial theoretical basis. By this we mean a lot of primary axioms, postulates, assumptions and general laws, which together will allow us to describe the idealized object of consideration.
- Logics. By this we mean the establishment of a framework for conclusions and evidence.
- The totality of statements. This includes evidence that makes up the bulk of the available knowledge.
Using
It should be noted that theories are the basis for the substantiation of a number of processes, as well as various practices. Moreover, they can be combined at the same time both on practical experience and on the basis of analytical considerations. Therefore, there are, for example, different types of theory of state and law. Moreover, it is worth noting that the same subject can be described from a different point of view, and its characteristics, accordingly, will vary.
In some places this lends itself to standardization, as evidenced by the types of economic theory, and over time new directions are outlined. Nevertheless, a number of provisions within them still attract lovers of criticism. Although for some assumptions (and with time the foundations in science), it is sometimes just necessary to accumulate a certain amount of knowledge. Before theories of the origin of man by Lamarck and Darwin were created, an extensive classification of organisms was carried out. The study of such features is the history of science. As this discipline has shown, the full-fledged development of the theory (which includes its modification, refinement, improvement, and extrapolation to new areas) in time may stretch beyond more than one century.
Truthfulness
An important characteristic for any theory is its practical confirmation, on which the degree of its validity depends. Here, for example, we have a certain political theory, which says that in this situation it is necessary to act in this way. If there is no practical confirmation or refutation of its effectiveness, then the decision on its application rests with people in power.
And in the case when there is a certain justification regarding it, then it is already possible to study the existing experience and make an appropriate decision on whether or not to implement it. The theory of analysis provides a considerable service in this. Thanks to the technique developed in its framework, it is possible, using the scientific method, to calculate the probability of successful implementation, and also to find the place of "pitfalls".