The foundation for the legendary ancient Greek civilization was laid about 40,000 years ago. At the initial stage of the formation of statehood, the Greeks were mainly hunters and gatherers, using well-designed tools and weapons. The very first settlement began with the cultivation of crops and plants, the domestication of animals and the manufacture of fabrics on primitive looms. Small villages sprang up along farmland and later grew into cities.
Another important technological innovation was the use of bronze and other materials, which further distinguished the Greeks of that time from other cultures. Thanks to this, the economy strengthened, and settlements increased along with the growth of wealth and the strengthening of power.
The origin of civilization
The cradle of Greek civilization, which influenced many other Western countries, was located on the Balkan Peninsula, surrounded on three sides by the Mediterranean Sea. Many islands of this and Aegean seas were also incorporated into the Greek state. These are the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, the Ionian Islands and Crete along with the southern Peloponnese. In addition to these main areas, Greece also included thousands of small land areas scattered across the seas.
Most of the country's landscape is made up of rocky mountains. Difficult sections, lack of roads and large rivers made it impossible to unite the entire Greek people into a single state.
Only about 30 percent of the land was suitable for farming, of which one fifth can be classified as good agricultural land. The Greeks founded several villages, whose inhabitants were engaged in the cultivation of grain and garden crops and raising livestock.
The most convenient and safest way to travel and trade was by sea. Many islands in the Mediterranean and Aegean seas, allowing shelter from the weather and replenishing supplies, facilitated such travel and trade. Settlements that offered good harbors developed like ports. Trade was conducted by all types of raw materials, except building stone and clay.
Mycenaean civilization - the beginning of Greek culture
Trade contacts influenced southern and central Greece from a more ancient state located on the island of Crete. Subsequently, Arthur Zvans, who was an archaeologist and pioneer of Cretan civilization, called it Minoan. Relations with the Minoans played an important role in the development of the early Mycenaean Greek civilization. The Greeks borrowed from the Cretans almost everything: from culture to writing.
Around the middle of the Bronze Age, the population and labor productivity increased; in mainland Greece, trade expanded even more, which further strengthened the economic and political power of the leaders. Warriors have become rulers. It is believed that the settlements of Mycenae, Pylos, Thebes and Athens were large cities at that time.
During the fourteenth and thirteenth centuries BC. e. In Mycenae, several palace complexes were built, which are considered the final phase of Mycenaean wealth and power. The architecture and decoration of the palaces of this period demonstrate a close connection with the Minoan style. They, unlike the laid-back palaces of Cretan civilization, were located on the hills or high barrows. Thick walls protected them.
Cretan civilization
The Minoans were the forerunner of statehood in the Greek archipelago. The ethnicity of the population is not fully understood. Evans suggested that they were from North Africa, but more recent DNA studies of the remains found in burials have disproved this version. The Cretans were probably quite a cosmopolitan people due to their geographical location and trade contacts with the peoples of the entire Mediterranean and its environs.
The dawn of Cretan civilization came at the end of the Early Bronze Age. The Minoans were the main civilization of the Bronze Age, then concentrated on the island of Crete. According to archaeological data, it lasted from 3000 to 1100 BC. e. In short, the heyday of Cretan civilization came in the middle of the Bronze Age in the history of mankind.
This was the first unique ancient Greek civilization to develop an alphabet based on syllables rather than stylized images, which had a great influence on the later classical culture of Ancient Greece. The name "Minoan" she received by the name of her legendary king Minos from Arthur Evans.
What was the cause of the death of Cretan civilization is not exactly known. None of the versions put forward by the researchers is supported by facts and evidence.
Alternative version
There is an opinion that the Cretan civilization originated on the island of Santorini. In 1967, the Greek archaeologist Spiridon Marinatos, a student of Evans, organized a comprehensive expedition to this island. Geologists have determined that it was the crown of a huge underwater volcano that erupted in 1520 and 1460 BC, just at a time when the decline of the Minoan culture allegedly occurred.
S. Marinatos and his assistants discovered the remains of the island ... no, not a palace, but an entire ancient city buried under layers of volcanic ash. It was many times larger than the palace opened by A. Evans. Murals were found here, slightly different from the Knossos, but also thousands of objects confirming the connection of the inhabitants of ancient Santorin with Crete.
Scientists have suggested that Santorinians settled on Crete, who managed to escape from the eruption of the Fera volcano. Since then, it became clear which volcano led to the death of the "Cretan" civilization.
In the light of the discoveries made by the Marinatos expedition, the assumption seems absolutely logical. This means that the city on Santorini was the center of an ancient civilization called Evans Minoan. And the "heyday" of Cretan civilization means that, on a historical scale, it was the decline of the more developed island state of Santorini.
History of archaeological site
Both Cretan and Mycenaean civilizations were discovered and excavated by Western archaeologists who pursued their goals.
The discoverer of Cretan civilization was the archaeologist Arthur Evans, who began excavations in 1900 in Crete, in the area of the old town of Knossos. The ruins of the city were discovered in 1878 by the Greek Minos Kalokerinas.
On the site of archaeological work, ruins of buildings were discovered, later called the complex of the large palace, which includes the Knossos Palace and the oval structure in Vasiliki.
In the middle of the 18th century BC e. a powerful earthquake destroyed the palaces of Crete, which were restored several decades later and became more grandiose. The largest were built in Knossos, Phaistos and Hagia Triad.
In terms of the scale of the structures, the surviving murals and other household items, Evans suggested that the city of Knossos was the center of the state of Cretan civilization.
The main monument of this period was the Palace of Knossos, which consisted of many rooms. The frescoes on the premises of the palace were one of the most valuable monuments of applied art in Crete. The best works of art from the Minoan religion and cult were preserved in a stone sarcophagus in the Hagia Triad.
On the small island of Mohlos, tombs with rich gold ornaments and precious stone vases were discovered. The most typical handicrafts of that era were Kamares vases, named after a cave on Mount Ida, where the first, largest and most characteristic samples were discovered.
Knossos palace
Arthur Evans conducted systematic excavations at the site between 1900 and 1931. As a result, the world saw the palace, most of Knossos and the cemetery.
The English archaeologist, the discoverer of Cretan civilization, Arthur Evans, carried out the restoration of the palace in its current form. These actions were mainly caused by the need to preserve open monuments. The archaeological service of the Ministry of Culture of Greece, if necessary, conducts only consolidation work.
Mycenae and Troy were discovered by the world amateur Heinrich Schliemann. Unlike the English archaeologist, the discoverer of the Cretan civilization Evans, he was not a professional. But he was obsessed with the desire to find Troy, and he succeeded.
The Greeks forgot where Troy, Delphi, Mycenae are. Schliemann discovered and showed them the structures of ancient ancestors, their history. He showed the world the cyclopean walls of the Mycenaean Acropolis. An integral part of these walls was the monumental Lion Gate, composed of four monoliths, above which was a triangular plate with a relief image of two lionesses.
The oldest examples of Greek art were discovered by Schliemann in the cave tombs of the Mycenaean gardens. In one of the tombs, he found the perfectly preserved golden death mask of King Mycenae Agamemnon.
Culture and Economics
The inhabitants of Minoan Crete had a complex culture and politics for that time. Economic and political life seemed to be centered around palaces, which were also centers of trade, although it is possible that it was conducted in agricultural areas. There was a complex bureaucracy in the palaces, which probably controlled the bulk of the trade.
Although the real monetary system was not yet invented, bronze ingots could be used as a means of payment. The palaces seem to have funded community service on the island.
The Minoans were a marine civilization that developed on the island of Crete around 3000 BC. e. They traded with the peoples who inhabited modern Spain, France, Egypt and Turkey, had their own merchant fleet. Trade included both luxury goods and raw materials.
Like all peoples of the Bronze Age, agriculture was the basis of the economy. But the Cretans had master craftsmen whose decorative and applied products were sold throughout the region.
Differences in art
In both the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations, ceramic products, bronze objects were made and the walls of the palaces painted with frescoes, samples of which have survived to our time.
Minoan frescoes mainly depict nature paintings. They decorated their ceramic products with the same motifs, most of which were made on a potter's wheel. On frescoes and vases there are inscriptions in the language, which is one of the dialects of ancient Greek. The art of the Cretans is more environmentally friendly, which testifies to the relative peacefulness and the absence of aggressive ambitions in civilization.
The main thing that distinguishes Cretan civilization from Mycenaean in art is the absence of battle scenes on frescoes and other works of art of that era.
The magnificent multi-colored frescoes of the ancient Cretan palaces give an idea of the religious, social and funeral rituals of the Minoans and confirm their reverent attitude to the environment. This is one of the earliest cultures, depicting natural landscapes without the presence of people. Animals were also depicted in their natural habitat.
Mycenaean art is more militant in spirit, the predominant themes of their frescoes were images of hunting and battles. Craftsmen created and widely used enameling techniques. The militant spirit, which literally permeates the entire art of Mykene, testifies to the desire of civilization for political hegemony in the region.
Architecture differences
Since Mycenaean art was heavily influenced by the Minoan, the differences are quite subtle. The main thing that distinguished the Cretan Minoan civilization is its geographical position. Isolated on the island from the attacks of numerous enemies, the naval power did not build defenses and fortified palaces, relying on the fleet to defend its sovereignty.
The mainland location of Mycenaean did not allow such a frivolous attitude to defense, and this was clearly reflected in the architecture. Cities on the mainland were heavily fortified against ground attacks by neighboring enemy tribes and had monumental defensive walls.
All the palace complexes of Mycenaean civilization are built around a large rectangular central hall - the megaron. The Mycenaean megaron was the forerunner of later archaic and classical ancient Greek temples and consisted of a porch, an entrance hall and the hall itself. Located in the very center, it was the heart of the palace and contained a large circular hearth, usually more than three meters in diameter, with four wooden columns supporting the ceiling with a hole for lighting. It was the ruler’s throne room. Nearby was the second, smaller hall of the queen. There were many premises allotted for servants, managers, stockpiling, and other needs.
All the palace rooms were richly decorated with frescoes. The columns and ceilings were, as a rule, made of painted wood, sometimes with bronze decorations.
The complex was surrounded by a fortified wall of large untreated blocks, called the "cyclops", since it was believed that only they could move such massive stones. Walls can reach thirteen meters in height and be up to eight meters thick.
Corbel galleries are arched corridors created by gradually overlapping stone blocks, circular stone tombs with roofs and monumental doorways with massive stone lintels with embossed triangles. They are also common features of Mycenaean palace complexes, creating a kind of labyrinths around them.
Other Mycenaean architectural structures include dams for flood control, especially in Tirins, and bridges built from large, roughly hewn stone blocks.
Religious rites
Minoans and Mykene believed in supernatural powers. They respected their gods, organized processions in their honor, accompanied by music, appeased them with animal sacrifices in the hope of God's mercy. The palace also acted as a center of religious activity. Priests and priestesses, who were considered able to contact with the gods, were gifted with lands, animals, precious objects, etc.
In the palaces erected by these peoples, there were religious places of worship.
Both peoples used burial or hive and chamber tombs for burial of their dead. In the tombs, archaeologists found objects intended to accompany the departed into the afterlife. Gold funeral masks found in the tombs of Mykene are unique.
In Minoan art, two unique images are known that are absent in Mycenaean culture. These are stylized bull horns, known as the "consecration horns," and the image of a bull in a jump. Especially a lot of such images in the palaces. Obviously, the bull symbol had religious significance for Cretan civilization.
In short, Cretan and Mycenaean civilization was very close in religious beliefs and rites, with the exception of the worship of the bull god. On the mainland there are no images of this animal, which was an important part of the Cretan fresco iconography.
Social device
In social terms, the Minoans were relatively egalitarian regarding class and gender equality by the standards of the time. The culture of the people was dominated by dancing, music, sports and worship of the bull. This is known from the myth that has come down to us about the legendary Minotaur, who lived in a maze near the palace in Knossos.
The Minoans have become a cultural model for Mycenae. Mycenaeans settled on the mainland of modern Greece around 2700 BC. e. Most of the Greek myths and tales of Homer come from the Mycenaean period. They also traded in the Mediterranean, but also had developed agriculture, unlike the Cretans.
The mainland Greeks who settled in Mycenae were very warlike. These were probably made by the constant threat of attack from neighboring tribes. The readiness at any time to repulse the enemy is reflected in art. The social system of the Mycenaean state is more stratified than the Cretans.
The Cretan Minoan civilization, in short, was significantly different from the Mycenaean organization of social order. Mycenaean statehood was based on war and conquest. Their city-states were strictly organized along the class line. The aristocracy lived in a walled citadel, next to the royal palace, peasants and artisans - outside the city walls.
The Minoans were a society based on trade and diplomacy. An advantageous geographical position made it possible to establish trade relations with the coastal states, and live comfortably in the proceeds of trade. Cretan civilization is one of the first egalitarian societies in the world. After the capture of Crete, the Mycenaeans were impressed by the level of culture of the Minoans and adopted many ideas from them.
The egalitarianism of the Minoan society, perhaps, indirectly confirms the version expressed by S. Marinatos why the Cretan civilization perished.
People who survived in a monstrous cataclysm and moved to another island for the sake of survival had to unite, despite the class differences in their previous lives. And over time, this has become the norm in relationships.
Language differences
The Mycenaeans spoke Greek and had a written language in the syllabary called the linear language B. The language of the Minoans is unknown. The hieroglyphic alphabet on the disk of Phaistos and the later one under the name linear A have been preserved, but not one of them has been decoded. Linear B appears in Knossos, beginning in 1500 BC. e, which indicates the conquest or administrative subordination of the Mykene.
The architecture and art of the Minoans are more perfect, with stunning frescoes and other works of art. The Mykene clearly reveals an imitation of the Cretans.
These civilizations had significant religious differences. On the mainland there are no images of a bull, which was an important part of Cretan iconography.
Minoan settlements, tombs and cemeteries have been found throughout Crete, but the largest of them are Knossos, Phaistos, Malia and Zakros.
So, briefly about the Cretan and Mycenaean civilizations:
- the Mykene had a stronger army;
- the Minoans were more engaged in trade;
- Mykene lived on mainland Greece;
- the Minoans lived on the island of Crete;
- the Minoans worshiped the bull;
- Mycenaeans used the linear B alphabet;
- the Minoans used the linear A alphabet.
The death of civilizations
The reasons for the fall of the Minoan state continue to be discussed. The remains of palaces and settlements indicate fire and destruction from 1450 BC. e.
There are several versions about why the Cretan civilization perished. Some historians consider the reason for the attack of the Greeks and their annexation of island civilization. There is evidence that the Mycenaeans repeatedly invaded Crete in the middle of the 15th century BC. e. in order to capture copper and ore for the manufacture of weapons. But they obviously lacked the strength to defeat the islanders.
There is a version that the Minoan culture was destroyed as a result of a natural disaster. It has been suggested that the cause of the death of Cretan civilization was the eruption of the volcano Fera on Santorin Island and the subsequent tsunami.
Since the exact dates of that era are unknown, the connection of volcanic activity with the sunset of Minoan civilization is unprovable.
The most likely is a fatal combination of natural disasters and other reasons, for example, competition for power and wealth, which weakened the structure of civilization, which allowed the Greeks to subjugate the Cretans.
The Mykene fell in 1100 BC. e., defeated by the troops of the Dorian Greeks.
Many of Mycenaean palace complexes, cities and villages were attacked or abandoned. The entire Mediterranean region during this time has experienced many disasters. The end of this phase marked the beginning of a new era that was very different from an earlier civilization.
With the end of this civilization, Greece entered the dark ages. Many cities disappeared, the population declined, the Greek Empire fell into decay.
The history of the ancient world in modern schools is taught in the 5th grade. The heyday of Cretan civilization in the school textbook dates from the XVI - the first half of the XV century BC.