An abundance of secrets is hidden in world history, and until now, researchers have not abandoned hopes of discovering something new in known facts. Exciting and unusual moments seem to be when you realize that once upon a time on the same lands we now walk, dinosaurs lived, knights fought, ancient people set up camps . World history forms the basis of its periodization for two principles that are relevant for the formation of the human race - material for the production of tools and manufacturing technology. In accordance with these principles, the concepts of “Stone Age”, “Bronze Age”, and “Iron” Age appeared. Each of these periodizations became a step in the development of mankind, another round of evolution and knowledge of human capabilities. Naturally, there were no absolutely passive moments in history. From time immemorial, to this day, there is a regular replenishment of knowledge and the development of new ways to obtain useful materials.
World history and the first methods of dating time periods
Natural sciences have become a tool for dating time periods. In particular, one can cite the radiocarbon method, geological dating, dendrochronology. The rapid development of ancient man allowed to improve existing technologies. About 5 thousand years ago, when the written period in the history of mankind began, other prerequisites for dating appeared, which were based on the time of the existence of various states and civilizations. It is tentatively believed that the period of human isolation from the animal world began about two million years ago, until the fall of the Western Roman Empire, which happened in 476 of the new era, the period of Antiquity was on. Before the Renaissance, there were the Middle Ages. Until the end of World War I, the period of the New History lasted, and now the time of the Newest has come. Historians of different times laid down their "anchors" of reference, for example, Herodotus paid special attention to the struggle of Asia with Europe. Scientists of a later period considered the approval of the Roman Republic as the main event in the development of civilization. Many historians agree on their assumption that for the Iron Age, culture and art did not matter much, since the instruments of war and labor came first.
Metal Era Backgrounds
In the primitive history, the Stone Age is identified, including the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic. Each of the periods is marked by the development of man and his innovations in stone processing. Initially, the most widespread of the guns was manual chopping. Later there appeared tools made of stone elements, not a whole nodule. During this period, the development of fire, the creation of the first clothes from the skins, the first religious cults and the arrangement of housing took place. During the semi-nomadic way of life of a person and hunting for large animals, more advanced weapons were required. A further round of the development of stone processing technologies took place at the turn of the millennium and the end of the Stone Age, when agriculture and cattle breeding spread, and ceramic production appeared. In the era of metal, copper and its processing technologies were mastered. The beginning of the Iron Age laid the foundation for work for the future. The study of the properties of metals successively led to the discovery of bronze and its distribution. The age of stone, bronze, iron is a single harmonious process of the development of mankind, based on the mass movements of peoples.
Evidence of Era Duration
The distribution of iron belongs to the primitive and early class history of mankind. The characteristic features of the period are trends in metallurgy and the production of tools. Even in the ancient world, an idea was formed about the classification of centuries according to the material. Scientists in various fields have studied and continue to study the Early Iron Age. In Western Europe, voluminous works published
Görnes, Montelius, Tischler, Reinecke, Kostshevsky, etc. In Eastern Europe, Gorodtsov, Spitsyn, Gauthier, Tretyakov, Smirnov, Artamonov, Grakov issued relevant textbooks, monographs, and maps on the history of the Ancient World . Iron distribution is often considered a characteristic feature of the culture of primitive tribes living outside civilizations. In fact, all countries at one time survived the Iron Age. The Bronze Age was only a prerequisite. He did not take such an extensive time in history. Chronologically, the Iron Age is from the 9th to the 7th century BC. At this time, many tribes of Europe and Asia received an impetus for the development of their own metallurgy of iron. Since this metal remains the most important material of production, modernity is part of this century.
Culture of the period
The development of the production and distribution of iron quite logically led to the modernization of culture and all social life. There were economic prerequisites for working relationships and the collapse of the tribal system. Ancient history notes the accumulation of values, the growth of property inequality and a mutually beneficial exchange of parties. Strengthening was widespread, the formation of a class society and state began. More funds went into the private property of the chosen minority, slavery arose and the stratification of society progressed.
How did the metal age manifest itself in the USSR?
At the end of the second millennium BC, iron appeared on the territory of the Union. Among the most ancient places of development can be noted Western Georgia and Transcaucasia. Monuments of the early Iron Age are preserved in the southern European part of the USSR. But metallurgy gained mass fame here in the first millennium BC, which is confirmed by a number of archeological artifacts from bronze in Transcaucasia, cultural relics of the North Caucasus and the Black Sea region, etc. During excavations of Scythian hillforts, priceless monuments of the early Iron Age were discovered. Finds were made on the Kamensky settlement near Nikopol.
History of materials in Kazakhstan
Historically, the Iron Age is divided into two periods. This is the earliest, which lasted from the 8th to 3rd century BC, and the late, which lasted from the 3rd century BC to the 6th century BC. Each country has in its history a period of iron distribution, but the features of this process are highly dependent on the region. So, the Iron Age in Kazakhstan was marked by events in three main regions. In southern Kazakhstan cattle breeding and irrigation farming are widespread. The climatic conditions of Western Kazakhstan did not involve farming. And Northern, Eastern and Central Kazakhstan was inhabited by people adapted to harsh winter. These three regions, radically different in terms of living, became the basis for the creation of three Kazakh zhuzes. Southern Kazakhstan has become the site of the formation of the Senior Zhuz. The lands of Northern, Eastern and Central Kazakhstan have become the haven of the Middle Zhuz. Western Kazakhstan is represented by the Younger Zhuz.
The Iron Age in Central Kazakhstan
The endless steppes of Central Asia have long become a place of residence for nomads. Here ancient history is represented by burial mounds, which are priceless monuments of the Iron Age. Especially often in the region there were mounds with painting or "mustache", which, according to scientists, perform the functions of a lighthouse and a compass in the steppe. The Tasmolinskaya culture, so named by the locality in the Pavlodar region, attracts the attention of historians, where the first excavations of man and horse in the large and small mounds were recorded. Archaeologists of Kazakhstan consider the mounds of Tasmola culture the most common monuments of the early Iron Age.
Features of the culture of Northern Kazakhstan
This region is characterized by the presence of cattle. Local residents switched from farming to a settled and nomadic way of life. Tasmolinskaya culture is revered in this region. The attention of researchers of monuments of the early Iron Age is attracted by the Birlik, Alypkash, Bekteniz mounds and three settlements: Karlyga, Borki and Kenotkel. On the right bank of the Esil River, the strengthening of the Early Iron Age remained. The development here received the art of smelting and processing of non-ferrous metals. Manufactured metal products were transported to Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Kazakhstan was several centuries ahead of its neighbors in the development of ancient metallurgy and therefore became a communicator between the metallurgical centers of its country, Siberia and Eastern Europe.
"Guardians of Gold"
The majestic mounds of East Kazakhstan mainly accumulated in the Shiliktinsky valley. There are more than fifty of them. In 1960, a study was conducted of the largest of the mounds, which is called Golden. This peculiar monument to the Iron Age was erected in the 8-9th century BC. Zaysan district of East Kazakhstan allows you to explore more than two hundred of the largest mounds, of which 50 are called Royal and may contain gold. In the Shiliktinsky valley there is the most ancient royal burial on the earth of Kazakhstan of the 8th century BC, which was discovered by Professor Toleubaev. Among archaeologists, this discovery made a fuss, just like the third “golden man” of Kazakhstan. He was buried in clothes decorated with 4325 gold figured plates. The most interesting find is a pentagonal star with lapis lazuli rays. Such an object symbolizes power and greatness. This became additional evidence that Shilikty, Besshatyr, Issyk, Berel, Boraldai are sacred places for ritual ceremonies, sacrifices and prayers.
The Early Iron Age in Nomad Culture
There are not so many documentary evidence of the ancient culture of Kazakhstan. Mostly information is obtained from archaeological sites and excavations. Much has been said about nomads regarding song and dance art. Separately, it is worth noting the craftsmanship in the manufacture of ceramic vessels and painting on silver bowls. The distribution of iron in everyday life and production was the impetus for the improvement of a unique heating system: the chimney, which was horizontally laid along the wall, evenly heated the entire house. Nomads invented many things familiar today, both for domestic use and for use in wartime. They came up with pants, stirrups, a yurt and a curved saber. Metal shells were developed to protect horses. The protection of the warrior himself was provided with iron armor.
Achievements and discoveries of the period
The Iron Age became the third in line for the stone and bronze. But by value, it is indisputably considered the first. Up to the present, iron has remained the material basis of all inventions of mankind. All important discoveries in the field of production are associated with its application. This metal has a higher melting point than copper. In its pure form, natural iron does not exist, and it is very difficult to carry out the smelting process from ore because of its refractoriness. This metal has caused global changes in the life of the steppe tribes. Compared to previous archaeological eras, the Iron Age is the shortest, but the most productive. Initially, mankind recognized meteorite iron. Some original products and jewelry from it were found in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Chronologically, these relics can be attributed to the first half of the third millennium BC. In the second millennium BC, a technology was developed to obtain iron from ore, but for quite some time this metal was considered rare and expensive.
They began to engage in the widespread production of weapons and iron tools in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia and India. The spread of this metal, as well as steel, provoked a technical revolution, expanding man’s power over nature. Now simplified the clearing of large forest areas for crops. The modernization of implements and the improvement of land cultivation were promptly carried out. Accordingly, new crafts were quickly learned, especially blacksmithing and weapons. Shoemakers who received more advanced tools did not stand aside. Masons and miners began to work more efficiently.
Summarizing the results of the Iron Age, it can be noted that by the beginning of our era all the main varieties of hand tools (with the exception of screws and articulated scissors) were already in use. Thanks to the use of iron in production, the construction of roads has become much simpler, military equipment has advanced one step, and a metal coin has come into circulation. The Iron Age accelerated and provoked the collapse of the primitive communal system, as well as the formation of a class society and statehood. Many communities during this period adhered to the so-called military democracy.
Possible development paths
It is worth noting that meteorite iron in small quantities existed in Egypt, but the spread of metal became possible with the beginning of ore smelting. Initially, iron was smelted only when such a need arose. So, fragments of metal inclusions in the monuments of Syria and Iraq were found, which were erected no later than 2700 BC. But after the 11th century BC, the blacksmithing masters of Eastern Anatolia learned the science of the systematic manufacture of objects from iron. The secrets and subtleties of the new science were kept secret and handed down from generation to generation. The first historical findings confirming the fact of the widespread use of metal for the manufacture of tools, recorded in Israel, namely in Gerar near Gaza. Here a huge number of hoes, sickles and openers made of iron were found, dating from the period after 1200 BC. Also in the excavation sites were found melting furnaces.
Special metal processing technologies belong to the masters of West Asia, from whom the masters of Greece, Italy and the rest of Europe borrowed them. The British technical revolution can be attributed to the period after 700 BC, and there it began and developed very smoothly. Egypt and North Africa showed interest in the development of metal at about the same time, with further transfer of skill to the south. Chinese craftsmen almost completely abandoned bronze, preferring honed iron. European colonists brought their knowledge of metal processing technology to Australia and the New World. After the invention of blower bellows, iron casting became widespread on a massive scale. Cast iron has become an indispensable material for creating all kinds of household utensils and military equipment, which was a productive impetus for the development of metallurgy.