One of the most famous American chemists is Linus Pauling. His biography interests not only residents of the United States, but also people around the world. It is not surprising, because he studied vitamins - biologically active additives so popular today. And I must say, Linus Karl Pauling came to interesting results. It is about this scientist who has become the laureate of two Nobel Prizes that we will talk today.
The origin and childhood of Linus Pauling
Linus Pauling, whose photo and biography is presented in the article, was born in Portland on February 28, 1901. The boy's father was a pharmacist (pictured below), and his mother was a housewife. When Linus was 9 years old, his father died. Because of this, the family found it difficult financially.
Linus grew up a closed and pensive child. He could observe insects for a long time, but especially Pauling was attracted to minerals. He was fascinated and attracted by the world of colored stones. This passion for crystals was sometimes manifested in adulthood: the scientist studied several minerals, based on the theory that he created.
At the age of 13, Pauling first visited a chemistry lab. What he saw there made a great impression on him. Linus decided to immediately take up the experiments. He borrowed the “chemical” dishes in the kitchen from his mother, and his own room became a place for research.
College education
Pauling never graduated from high school, which did not prevent him from enrolling in Oregon Agricultural College, which was later transformed into Oregon University. During training, Linus was seriously carried away by chemical technology. And in the evenings and nights he had to earn a livelihood. Pauling worked in a restaurant as a dishwasher, and also sorted paper in a printing house.
Linus studied brilliantly. The prodigy was noticed by teachers and in the penultimate course they invited him to become an assistant. So Pauling began working at the Department of Quantitative Analysis. A year later, he became an assistant in mechanics, chemistry and materials.
Defense of the doctoral dissertation
Linus Pauling in 1922 became a bachelor of science (chemical technology). To work on his doctoral dissertation, he was invited to the California Institute of Technology, located in Pasadena. He brilliantly defended the work in 1925.
The young scientist began to pursue a career in a technological institute. He became an assistant professor already in 1927, an associate professor in 1929. In 1931, Pauling was already a professor of chemistry.
X-ray crystallography study
During this time, he acquired important skills in the field of X-ray crystallography. Linus read X-rays with ease, as if he could observe the atomic structure of substances with his own eyes. This knowledge brought the scientist closer to the nature of chemical bonding - the main field of research for the rest of his life. He went to Europe, where he visited famous scientists: in Munich - A. Sommerfeld, in Zurich - E. Schrödinger, in Copenhagen - N. Bohr.
Theory of hybridization (resonance)
In 1928, Linus put forward his theory of hybridization (in another way - the theory of resonance). It was a real breakthrough in structural chemistry. At this time, the problem of reflecting the structure and properties of the compound in the chemical formula still remained unresolved. Despite the fact that scientists agreed to use a dash to indicate a valence bond, many ambiguities arose. The fact is that in reality everything turned out to be more complicated than the schemes drawn on paper.
Soon, additional notation was needed. In particular, if the connection was polar, this was indicated by an additional arrow; if it was ionic, minuses and pluses were additionally put over the atoms. However, this did not help much. It turned out that for an adequate depiction of the properties and structure of many molecules, especially complex ones, one should have already resorted to several structural formulas. In particular, five was needed for benzene. Since each was considered separately, none of them could accurately describe the properties and structure of this aromatic compound.
The idea proposed by Pauling was that the molecule is the result of resonance, that is, the imposition of several structures on each other. Moreover, each of these structures describes various features of the chemical properties and structure of the molecule.
In 1939, Linus's work, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, appeared. The scientist applied quantum theory to solve various problems facing science. This allowed him to explain many disparate facts from a single theoretical point of view.
New discoveries
Linus Pauling in the second half of the 1930s studied the structure of molecules based on the theory of resonance. He was also interested in antibodies, in particular, their ability to provide immunity. The scientist made a number of discoveries in the field of virology, immunology and biochemistry. For example, he studied a hemoglobin molecule. Linus Pauling in 1951 published the first description of the three-dimensional molecular structure of proteins (in collaboration with R. Korn). It was obtained on the basis of x-ray crystallography.
Attitude to Pauling's theory in the USSR
Pauling's theory caused a real storm in the USSR. In our country, after the defeat of linguists, cybernetics and geneticists, they took up quantum mechanics, and then chemistry became the target of the NKVD. Pauling's resonance theory, as well as K. Ingold's mesomerism theory, akin to her, were the main objects of attack. The Soviet Union announced that Pauling's ideas about a real molecule as a middle ground between two or more extreme abstract structures are idealistic and bourgeois. On June 11, 1951, an All-Union meeting was held at which problems of the chemical structure were examined. At this event, the resonance theory was defeated.
Nobel Prizes and other Pauling Achievements
However, the achievements of Linus have been appreciated abroad. Pauling in 1954 was given the Nobel Prize for studying the nature of chemical bonds, as well as for using it to study the structure of compounds. And in 1962, the scientist received this prize for the second time - as a fighter for peace.
Pauling is the author of about 250 scientific publications and many books, including a unique textbook on modern chemistry, which is unique in its depth and simplicity of presentation. In 1948, for his achievements in science, he became the head of the American Chemical Society, and was also elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States and many other scientific societies in various countries.
Peacekeeping
Deeply aware of the threat posed to mankind by atomic weapons, Linus began to actively fight against the creation of new nuclear weapons. This scientist was among the initiators of the Pugwash movement. Pauling in 1957 passed the appeal to the UN Secretary General, signed by 11,021 scientists, representing 49 countries. In the 1958 book "There Can Be No War!" Linus Pauling expressed his pacifist views.
In June 1961, the scientist, together with his wife, convened a conference in Norway (Oslo), the theme of which was countering the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Despite the appeal of Linus to Nikita Khrushchev, in September of the same year, the USSR resumed testing. And in March next year, the United States did the same. Then the scientist began to carry out dosimetric monitoring of radioactivity. Pauling in October 1962 spread information that its level had doubled compared to the previous 16 years. In addition, Pauling drafted a treaty banning such tests. In July 1963, the USSR, the USA and Great Britain signed it.
The scientist stopped working at the California Institute of Technology in 1963 and began working at the Center for Research of Public Institutions, located in Santa Barbara. Here he began to deal with the problems of war and peace. Linus carried out a series of experiments on the threat of radioactive contamination. The scientist found that radioactive elements cause leukemia, bone cancer, thyroid cancer and some other diseases. Despite the fact that Linus equally actively condemned the governments of the USSR and the USA for the arms race, some conservative politicians questioned his loyalty to the United States.
In 1969, the scientist stopped working at the University of California, where he carried out his research for two years. He did this in protest against the educational policy pursued by R. Reagan, Governor of California . Linus began working at Stanford University as a professor.
Pauling's personal life
In 1922, the scientist married a student at Oregon Agricultural College - Ave Helen Miller (her photo is presented below). They had a daughter, as well as three sons. In 1981, Ava Helen died. After her death, Pauling lived in California, in Big Sur, where their country house was located.
Orthomolecular medicine Pauling
Pauling is a supporter and popularizer of the so-called orthomolecular medicine. Its essence lies in the fact that treatment is carried out using substances that are present in the human body. The scientist believed that to defeat a particular disease, you just need to correctly change their concentration. His Medical Institute was founded in 1973 to study the method of treatment and prevention of the disease by consuming the necessary doses of healthy minerals and vitamins. Pauling believed that it was especially important to consume vitamin C in large quantities. In 1979, this scientist’s book, entitled Cancer and Vitamin C, appeared. It talked about how ascorbic acid helps to cope with this dangerous disease. Linus Pauling created Vitamin C and Runny Nose that same year. Both of these books met with mixed feelings on the part of physicians, but became very popular.
The study of ascorbic acid
The vitamins of Dr. Linus Pauling were already interested in old age. The scientist devoted the last 30 years of his life to the study of ascorbic acid and the possibilities of its clinical use and came to the conclusion that its use in large quantities has a positive effect on the human body.
It should be said right away that no vitamins will save you if you lead an unhealthy lifestyle. They can be compared with seat belts. When a person is fastened, it simply protects him in an accident, but is not a guarantee of a safe ride. Vitamins also only give us extra protection. Confirmation of their action is the active and long life of such a scientist as Linus Pauling. He took vitamin C in an amount of 18 g per day, and vitamin E (tocopherol) - 800 IU, starting from the seventh decade. Linus managed to survive to 93 years! In 1994, Linus Pauling died. His brief biography indicates that he did not suffer from serious illnesses.
By the way, even the implacable opponents of this scientist agree that ascorbic acid is good for health. Fierce debate has been going on for many years only about the amount to be taken.
What does the statistics say?
The U.S. Academy of Sciences recommends an adult take 60 mg of vitamin C daily. Russian standards vary depending on the person’s age, gender, and profession. For men, it is 60-110 mg, for women - 55-80. With these and large quantities, there is neither hypovitaminosis (bleeding gums, fatigue), nor scurvy. In people who consume more than 50 mg of ascorbic acid per day, according to statistics, signs of old age occur 10 years later than in the rest.
Linus Pauling Vitamins
Reviews about their use come from all over the world. Vitamins strengthen immunity, give a good appearance, a charge of vivacity and energy, as people say. They are becoming increasingly popular as a dietary supplement. We are talking about such a complex that is being released today, as the Super Multi-Vitamins by Dr. Linus Pauling. It consists of more than 40 vitamins, plant components, minerals and royal jelly. The latter has immunostimulating and anti-inflammatory properties, and also increases physical and mental performance. Linus Pauling multivitamins are recommended as a general restorative. This complex is an additional source of minerals and vitamins.