The main subject of anthropology is man in all its manifestations. It is because of this that there are several internal disciplines of this science. Anthropology is divided into philosophical, cultural, physical, social, etc. All of them study human nature from different angles.
Origin of the term
The word "anthropology" has Greek roots. In ancient times, this term was popular among Hellenic philosophers and scientists. It is believed that the word was introduced into everyday life by Aristotle, who lived in the IV century BC. e. In this case, the philosopher implied anthropology as a science that studies the spiritual side of human existence.
With this subtext, the term was used by a variety of famous thinkers. For example, among them was Kant, who was very interested in anthropology. What is human nature, what is the place of people in the world - all these and many other questions were raised by the German philosopher and his like-minded people. Nevertheless, the prevailing point in modern humanitarian science is that the term “philosophical anthropology” is applicable to the school that arose in the 20th century. And only in a secondary sense does this concept cover the work of thinkers of previous eras.
Philosophical Anthropology
Fundamental to philosophical anthropology are the classic publications of the German philosopher and thinker Max Scheler. This is "The position of man in space," "On the eternal and man," etc.
Scheler's books were written at the beginning of the 20th century, and they combined the multilateral scientific experience of the previous century. The German researcher tried to answer the question of what the human spirit is. Philosophical anthropology, among other things, appeals to religion. The basis of man, according to Scheler, is spirit in the broad sense of the word. It consists of instincts, vitality and various ideas.
Scheler influenced many thinkers of the XX century, who somehow worked in the field of philosophical anthropology. Among them were Russian humanities: Andrei Bely, Nikolai Berdyaev, Sergey Bulgakov, Lev Karsavin, etc. These researchers studied the problems of anthropology, relying on related disciplines: sociology, ethology, biology and psychology. The object of their research was man. Philosophical anthropology today has many theoretical schools based on their writings.
Physical anthropology
In a more familiar sense for the average person, the word "anthropology" means physical anthropology. This science studies man from the point of view of a biological species: its structure, its relationship with nature, and the characteristics of the organism.
In Russia, physical anthropology was born in the 18th century thanks to Peter I. The Russian Tsar created the country's first museum - the Kunstkamera, where there were many exhibits devoted to anatomy. Peter became interested in this science after he visited Europe during the “great embassy”. The sovereign incognito attended lectures by Dutch anatomists and anthropologists.
In Russia there was a lot of material for the development of the science of man. In the XVIII century, Siberia was actively investigated and colonized. Representatives of small and unique ethnic groups lived on its expanses. The leaders of the expeditions compiled detailed anthropological reports about their lives, which were then sent to St. Petersburg and European universities. Among these researchers were Stepan Krashennikov, Peter Pallas, etc. Many of them were foreigners who were actively employed by the Romanovs due to a lack of their own specialists.
Anthropology in Russia
Also in Russia, the history of anthropology includes the works of various Russian thinkers. Alexander Radishchev, best known for his essay The Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow, also studied human nature. In the Ilim link he wrote an important treatise "On Man, on His Mortality and Immortality," where he combined the theses of philosophical and physical anthropology.
The socialist and utopian Nikolai Chernyshevsky could not ignore the question of a human place in the world. He actively promoted a philosophical school such as materialism. It also reflected racial anthropology. What is a people, ethnos - all this excited the minds of researchers of the XIX century. Socialists, like Chernyshevsky, believed that all the differences in the fate of different nations took place due to a chain of historical events, and not racial natural differences.
Cultural and Social Anthropology
Another discipline (cultural, or social anthropology) primarily studies the customs and traditions of different peoples. In Russia, Nikolai Miklouho-Maclay, who explored various eastern countries, made a huge contribution to this science. He managed to get even to the distant peoples of Oceania at a time when no one was seriously interested in their life. His essays became pillars for researchers of various profiles.
Nevertheless, cultural (or social) anthropology arose somewhat later than Miklouho-Maclay. At the beginning of the 20th century, this science was born thanks to the books of Leo Frobenius, Ruth Benedict, Franz Boas, Marcel Moss, etc. If the term “cultural anthropology” is popular in the USA, then in the UK it is “social anthropology”. What is cultural anthropology? It is based on biological knowledge about a person and at the same time explores ideas and values accepted in different cultures.
Similarity to Ethnology
Cultural anthropology is a related science with ethnology, which is somewhat broader in the questions posed to itself. In different countries, this similarity is accepted or rejected in its own way. Interestingly, in Russia, thanks to the Soviet legacy, the tradition to call this science ethnography has been preserved. At the same time, the term “ethnology” is practically not used in English-language science, but, on the contrary, “cultural anthropology” is popular. What is human study for Western researchers? Thanks to globalization and the openness of the world, modern scholars today combine in their works a wide variety of knowledge formed in dissimilar cultures, which helps to take a fresh look at human nature.