For thousands of years north of the Alps, nameless primitive tribes lived, whose distinct traces are well preserved in the depths of unspoiled nature. Fragments of their livelihoods were found in caves and marshes, in the coastal zones of rivers and at the bottom of lakes, as well as in the thickness of centuries-old glaciers. Unfortunately, despite many facts, for the history of most of these peoples (hunters, warriors, peasants) are doomed to remain faceless, while modern science is trying to give them names in the main archaeological sites. And only thanks to ancient Roman sources did any of them manage to get out of the depths of centuries and rightfully take their place in the historical arena. Questions about who the Celts are and where these people lived cause a lot of discussion among researchers and do not have clear answers.
Secretive people
In the scientific community, there is an assumption that the name "Celts" is directly related to such a concept as "secretive people." Observing centuries-old traditions, the priestly caste of the Celtic tribes (druids) from generation to generation passed on their secret knowledge only verbally. In order to preserve the teachings from strangers and the uninitiated, the Druids were strictly forbidden to leave written evidence. This explains the fact that to this day not a single document was found.
In a historical context, the term “Celts” does not mean a single nation, but it implies many tribes that shared common cultural characteristics and spoke Celtic languages. According to the testimony of the ancient geographer Strabo, about 60 Gallic tribes were inscribed in the Lugdunsky sanctuary dedicated to the ruler Caesar Augustus. In composition, they were different: some were small, others, on the contrary, were very strong and constantly asserted their right to the primacy in all of Gaul. These include the Arverns, Cenons, Edui, and Salluvius, which were defeated by the Romans in 124 BC. e., opposing Massilia.
During the Celtic expansion, some parts of some tribes, when penetrating European states, underwent significant changes in their composition. Materials of archeology from the Carpathian basin and Moravia, where the Celts lived in the II century BC. e., give reason to believe that even then they were in fairly close connection with the indigenous population, and some of their groups completely disappeared into the new environment, mingling with the locals. But there were also those who managed to preserve the purity of blood (lingons, fights), which caused their small numbers.
Through the eyes of the ancient world
The Greeks called this ancient people the Celts, among the Romans they were called the Gauls, but whether they had their own name, history is unknown. The presence of these northern neighbors played a very large role in the life of ancient civilization, according to the notes of Greek and Roman authors. According to their descriptions, the Celts had huge bodies with light or reddish skin, blond or red hair, and on a stubborn expression on their faces was a wild piercing look. They were the owners of a rather rude voice, which even with a friendly mood sounded very menacing. In addition to everything, the ancient authors note that the Celts have excessive vanity and lack of modesty. Arrogance is characteristic of them, but in the event of any particular success, the barbarian’s conceit became completely unbearable.
The Romans represented the Celtic tribes as perfect berserkers, who had rather specific ideas about military uniforms and weapons. The historian Polybius from Ancient Greece narrates that special Celtic troops - spearmen (hezats) threw themselves into battle, being completely naked. According to their beliefs, the observance of this ancient tradition made it possible to call on the protection of divine powers. In addition, for the enemies such a spectacular exit provided a demonstration of military heroism, which the Celts always stood in first place.
Aboriginal lands
Archaeologists and historians bit by bit searched for information, trying to answer questions: who are the Celts and where did these mysterious people live before? Current linguistic data help to slightly open the veil of the past and refute the earlier formed opinion that the ancestral home of the Celts was Gaul, and from it they began their performances in other European countries. Researchers argue that if Gaul was the very original place where the Celts lived, then in French place names there should have been much more Celtic names. And we are talking not only about places of settlements, but also about natural objects. However, there their names are marked only at fortresses and settlements, and all other geographical names, apparently, are related to the peoples who lived here before them.
Thus, starting from the data of linguistics and archaeological evidence, scientists come to the conclusion that the original lands of the Celts were in the territories of the south and west of Germany, between the Danube and the Rhine. It is in these areas that many geographical objects bear Celtic names (rivers, mountains, villages), which gives every reason to consider: toponymy has a local character. Consequently, the advance of Celtic civilization took place from Germany to Gaul, and not otherwise than previously assumed.
Broken barbarian society
Speaking of the ancient Celts, it is worth noting immediately that they did not have that civilization that could one day be discovered and traced as a civilization of the same Sumerians or Ancient Babylon. Rather, we are talking about a scattered barbarian society, which at the peak of its power spread the empire from the British Isles to the territory of Turkey, and in the final it was reduced to Latin and Germanic tribes.
The first notes about who the Celts are and where they lived, date back to the VI century BC, to the beginning of their mass emigration. Presumably from this time they began to move and settled in the territories of Spain and Portugal. After several centuries, the Celtic tribes settled in Britain, northern Italy, Greece and the Balkans. It should be noted that such a wide distribution was not accompanied by the formation of any statehood, which was inherent in Greece or Rome. In the 1st century BC e. In confrontation with Rome and the Germanic tribes, the Celts were expelled from the continent, and the lands of their stay were now limited only to Ireland, England and Wales. The arrival of the Romans in the year 43 to the island of Britain significantly reduced the territory of the exiles, and the Anglo-Saxons that appeared in the 5th century threw them altogether to the outskirts of the island.
The surviving sources allow us to conclude that the Celtic civilization was not so much material as spiritual, and was based primarily on a developed culture that united tribes in vast territories. But interestingly, unlike many more advanced ancient civilizations, their culture survived. The languages, traditions and religion of the Celts have survived to this day and are rooted in parts of the British Isles, in some places in Scotland, Wales, Ireland and Brittany.
Family and gender
The invariable basis of Celtic society was family and clan. According to the ancients, the head of the family had unlimited power over all members of the household, including the right to life and death. If the sudden death of any of the men was doubtful and raised questions, then first of all his wife was subjected to interrogations and trial, but this did not mean at all that the woman did not have respect (especially in the higher circles). At the same time, in Ireland and Gaul, the Celt could have several wives at once, among which one was the main one, and the rest were in a secondary position, reaching the slave position. By the end of the Lathen period (VI centuries. BC. E.), monogamy was in demand by society, although polygamy still held in places.
Family and family members were firmly united by common obligations and responsibilities. In some circumstances, the representative of the clan could lose some rights and privileges, but he was not exempted from fulfilling his duty. The order of the Celtic family included a certain order of inheritance and succession, which sometimes caused difficulties in the upper strata, including the royal house. The upbringing of children was also carried out in accordance with peculiar customs and rules. For example, according to the traditions of the ancient Celts, sons were categorically forbidden to appear in a public place with their fathers, and they did not have the right to bear arms until they came of age.
The development of the clan structure in Celtic society was at a very high level and was accompanied by multiple phenomena that formed the prerequisites for the emergence of a class system. However, this process was stopped by the fall of Celtic power.
Agriculture and livestock
The economic resources of Celtic society throughout the whole time were agriculture and cattle breeding. In the west, they were engaged in farming themselves, and in the east (in particular in Central Europe), being only in the upper stratum of society, the Celts were forced to rely on the production of the local population.
Grain farming in Gaul, a pillar of Celtic power, was marked by good profitability, and in the 1st century BC. e. the state was reputed to be very rich. Almost all types of crops were grown in the fields: wheat, rye, barley, oats. During the eight-year war, Caesar regularly received food from there for his small army. The Irish Celts preferred to cultivate mainly barley, from whose grains they prepared porridge, baked bread and made beer. In addition, some types of vegetables (beets, turnips) and plants were actively cultivated to obtain dyes.
In some areas where the Celts lived, such as the mountainous regions of Britain and Scotland, cattle breeding was of paramount importance in the economy. The herd was grazed most of the year in the meadows, and in the summer season it was distilled to higher places. Although the Celts raised livestock, hunting for wild animals (boars, wild boars, deer) was very common. Treated hunting trophies were a special pride of the nobility and were put into the tomb upon death.
Skilled craftsmen
The art of the Celtic people refutes the prevailing stereotype of its unbridled savagery, revealing a high level of geometric imagination. Masters and artists masterly combined motives from different sources into a single whole and created on this basis incredibly complex decorations and household items in design and decoration. A considerable number of patterns of filigree technique are present at their work in wood, leather and bone. Some works were made of stone. But the special craftsmanship of Celtic artists was revealed in metal works, in which it reached its full prosperity.
During the campaigns, the Celts actively got acquainted with the production methods of more developed countries and introduced them into the working processes, adapting their tools to them. When military expansion went into economic and commercial, some groups of Celtic manufacturers began to establish their own workshops, gradually gaining fame in highly developed areas. The art of casting and minting metals, enamel art, leather production, pottery workshops, specialized production of rotating mills for grinding grain - Celtic craftsmen managed to master almost all the production processes and technologies in Central and Northern Europe.
Gods of the ancient celts
Celtic beliefs are of particular interest to historians, although this aspect of their being is one of the most difficult to study. Many scholars had to admit that it’s very difficult to penetrate the essence of the Celtic religion, and this is mainly due to the fact that it is closely intertwined with myths. The French mythologist J. Vandry wrote that when studying their religion its depths seem to slip away, plunging into legends and legends that are voluminous and dark in nature. Researcher M.L.Szhosted put forward the idea that the Celts did not have a developed pantheon of gods at all: numerous studies could not reveal any hint of the presence of a temple, on the contrary, everything indicated that in reality it never existed. The people met their gods in the impenetrable wilderness of the forest; his mythical world was represented as a sacred forest inhabited by otherworldly forces. And in the role of priests among the Celts, druids acted, bearing all the important functions in society (doctors, judges, teachers).
Antique authors failed to leave significantly important information about the Celtic deities. In "Notes on the Gallic War" Caesar mentioned the names of the Celtic gods, but he called them the Greco-Roman names: Apollo, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars and others. Another note was provided by Lucan, indicating a triad of gods with Celtic names: Teutat (patron in crafts, art and commerce), Taranis (god of thunder) and Esus (god of battles).
The surviving legends of the ancient Celts help fill the “white spots” of this area, but it is still far from complete clarity. To date, a significant number of their gods are already known, most of which required bloody offerings, sometimes human sacrifices.
Celtic heritage
Even at the beginning of the New Age, the Celts appeared to the Western world as wild bounty hunters, showing a vivid illustration of distant ancestors, until in the 19th century archaeologists in France, Hallstatt, La Tenet and other places that laid the foundation for subsequent scientific research and discoveries began to knock.
As it turned out, the contribution of the Celts to European civilization was greatly underestimated. More than once undergoing a revival, their culture is the basic foundation of a number of cultures in Central and Western Europe. In the pre-Christian history of the European continent, it was the Celts who played the main role in bringing the barbarian tribes closer to the empires of the ancient world and the developed culture of the southern regions. This legendary nation enriched European civilization with new approaches and processes of specialized production, thereby creating the prerequisites for its subsequent development.
Until now, some areas where the Celts lived still retained some aspects of their culture, social structure, literary traditions, and in some places traces of the ancient way of life are also traced (the western coast of Ireland and Scotland).
Interesting Facts
- The Celtic people had a unique law - to be thin, compliance with which was mandatory. If anyone did not fit into the standard belt, he was fined. Therefore, Celtic society was actively involved in sports and was considered the most mobile in the ancient world.
- Roman authors have repeatedly noted the pretentiousness of Celtic women. The beauties shaved their eyebrows, put on headbands, hung with gold jewelry and certainly emphasized the delicacy of the waist with narrow girdles. In addition, they had hairstyles with a tower design, for the construction of which the hair was rinsed with lime water.
- The Celtic warriors' coveted prey was the severed head of a worthy adversary. Diodorus of Sicily narrates that, having defeated his enemy, the Celts cut off their heads and placed them in cedar oil for storage. Also, when a young man was ordained a warrior, he was to provide society with the severed head of the enemy.
- The basis of most of Europe’s tales is composed of the legends of the ancient Celts. Exciting stories of exploits and incredible love have become an inexhaustible inspiration for the classics of world literature and poetry, including Shakespeare, Pushkin, Tennyson, Wordsworth and others.