Modern science is the result of the rapid development of scientific thought in the eighteenth to nineteenth century. At that time, the scientific approach to many events was just beginning to take shape, and scientists created a lot of directions that were very popular, but were later recognized as false. A similar story can tell phrenology. This area of science once conquered almost the whole world, but lost its significance in connection with the development of psychology and neurophysiology. Although phrenology nevertheless left several rational grains for these areas of science.
Is phrenology a science or pseudoscience?
In many scientific sources, when mentioning phrenology, various formulations are used. Some scientists confidently state that phrenology is pseudoscience, while others consider it to be a science, which has brought a lot of discoveries that modern scientists use. Unity among the world community, unfortunately, is not. Therefore, in our article we will talk about phrenology as a science. But keep in mind that at present it is not considered as a holistic and validated theory.
Phrenology is the science of the structure of the skull and its relationship with the psychological characteristics of a person. This theory was very popular in the nineteenth century and had followers around the world. In many countries, even at the beginning of the twentieth century, the basic principles of phrenology were used in the scientific works of large world-famous scientists.
The main provisions of phrenology: briefly on the main
The basis of the scientific theory was the assumption that in the human brain, each department is responsible for certain psychological functions. The more developed a particular department, the more noticeable it is in the skull. It was believed that the protuberances on the skull are characteristic of specially developed parts of the cerebral cortex, and the depressions indicate the underdevelopment of its certain departments.
The followers of phrenology believed that the psychological characteristics of a person laid down at conception cannot be changed under the influence of a social factor and upbringing. Moreover, a long-term effect could have a certain effect on the physiology and psychology of a person, but this can happen only after several generations. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, several basic principles of phrenology were formulated, which became the main scientific postulates used by all followers of science:
- the brain belongs to the organs of consciousness;
- the cerebral cortex consists of twenty-seven areas that function independently of each other;
- certain areas of the brain have the ability to develop spontaneously, thereby increasing its total volume;
- the active development of individual parts increases their size;
- by measuring the human skull, one can accurately state the development and size of individual areas of the cerebral cortex;
- Based on the measurement data, one can predict a person’s behavior and reveal his mental inclinations.
It is the above statements that became the basis for the further development of phrenology.
Background to the emergence of science
At the end of the eighteenth century, physiognomy was very popular in Europe. According to its basics, all character traits of a person can be identified by the structure of his face. Many scientists were seriously engaged in the development of this science and cited a large evidence base confirming its foundations. Physiognomy was carried away in higher circles and considered it a new trend, revealing the secrets of human psychology. Modern historians believe that this was just the need of people in science, explaining the characteristics of psychology. The fact is that at the turn of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, people were increasingly moving away from religious dogma and showed great interest in studying man as a person. Not surprisingly, the depths of the human subconscious seemed to be something unknown from a scientific point of view.
Also during this period of time, the American psychiatrist put forward the theory that all criminals who committed the most terrible atrocities experienced some insanity in connection with the malfunction of certain parts of the brain. According to this theory, at the time of the crime, those parts of the brain that previously worked autonomously begin to "mix" with each other and cause an attack leading to crime.
All of the above facts became the basis on which phrenology was based. This scientific trend, emerging from physiognomy, began to actively develop. Subsequently, it gave rise to a mass of new trends and revolutionary scientific ideas. The founder of phrenology almost up to the end of his life defended his theory. After his death, he bequeathed his skull to a scientific institute as the last and most significant proof of the scientific version, which he promoted in all countries of the world.
Who created the doctrine of phrenology?
Very often, a new science arises as a joint work of several learned minds. But in our case, everything happened in a completely different way. The creator of phrenology is the Austrian scientist Franz Gall. He was an outstanding physician and anatomist, and until thirty-eight years of age collected information in order to substantiate his theory. The first time he gave lectures in Vienna, later Gall more than once gave lectures on phrenology around the world and published many scientific papers on this topic.
Franz Gall: A Brief Biography
The famous scientist was born in Vienna in the middle of the eighteenth century. Many contemporaries considered him a brilliant doctor, he had his clientele and earned great money. But most of all, Gall was interested in the anatomy and features of the human psyche, reflected in the structure of the skull.
In parallel with his medical practice, he actively studied the structure of skulls of people and animals. For several years, Gall assembled a real collection of skulls and their casts, which allowed him to create some scientific basis for phrenology.
The popularity of his lectures in Vienna made the Austrian government worry. After all, phrenology categorically rejected the divine spark, on which the talent and character of a person depend. This contradicted all church dogmas, so the scientist was expelled from Austria. But this did not force Gall to abandon his scientific theory, he traveled to many European countries and everywhere was enthusiastically received by scientists. He stayed the longest in France. During this time, Gall published four volumes of scientific works on phrenology. The scientist died in 1828 from a brain hemorrhage.
Phrenology development
According to Gall, he first thought about the relationship between brain development and skull structure back in school years. Then he noticed that his peers, who have large bulging eyes , have a good memory. Subsequently, he analyzed several hundred people and distributed human talents and characteristics to different parts of the brain. Initially, Gall identified twenty-seven parts of the brain and even drew a map of them; later on, the number increased to thirty-nine.
Gall helped the young doctor Spurzheim in his work, who became the co-author of the scientist's first scientific works. Many doctors accused Gall of fraud, because in his lectures he gave those examples that confirmed his theory. The scientist simply did not notice other facts and considered them insignificant. Although over the years there have been plenty of them.
Despite opponents, phrenology has gained popularity in the UK, USA and Europe. Gall had numerous followers who continued his scientific work until the middle of the last century.
Phrenology sunset
Scientists believe that until the thirties of the last century, phrenology was actively substantiated from the point of view of science. Everyone considered it his duty to contribute to its development, so during this period many books and scientific works on phrenology were published.
In subsequent years, scientists massively popularized science, trying to attract as many supporters as possible. An example of phrenology studying the brain has inspired many scientists to work on this topic. But some of them came to very different results and began to come forward with the exposure of science, bringing new arguments, facts and theories. Phrenology constantly intersected with anthropology, psychology, forensic psychiatry and physiology. In the end, pseudoscience became the impetus for the development of all the listed scientific branches, which buried almost all of Halle's work.
The role of phrenology in modern forensics
It is worth noting that phrenology in forensics for the first time tried to justify criminal behavior and stated the need to study the nature of the crime as a whole. Modern scientists and geneticists have taken as a basis the theory put forward by phrenologists that criminal behavior is closely interconnected with defects in the functioning of the brain. Moreover, it was the phrenologists who first created the classification of the behavior of criminals. Almost all of them believed that people who commit crimes were sick. In addition, modern psychiatrists have confirmed that already at the time of conception, people have a different tendency to violence and manifestation of aggression.
All these theories were first put forward by Halle and in those days were considered as fantastic.
The influence of phrenology on the formation of psychology as a science
Phrenology in psychology has become the generator of many revolutionary ideas. Many scientists believe that it did not cease to exist, but simply transformed into a new science. In fact, this is not so, but it was the theories of phrenologists that had an incredibly powerful influence on the development of psychology.
For the first time, a version was put forward that psychological deformations of a personality may have physiological causes. And thanks to this they can be cured. Also, the subject of study of phrenologists was the consciousness that in the nineteenth century it was difficult to explain. Most famous twentieth-century American psychiatrists were once phrenologists. This fact says a lot.
Jurisprudence of Europe: a trace of phrenology
Pseudoscience has managed to become the impetus for the revision of many legislative acts in European countries. For example, in relation to mentally unhealthy criminals such punitive measures as for ordinary people have ceased to be taken. They began to be sent to special institutions for the course of treatment. Thanks to phrenologists, a social movement has emerged advocating the abolition of the death penalty in European countries and the United States.
At the same time, in many countries the government was thinking about adopting a number of laws regulating the rights of prisoners and introducing rules for the management of correctional institutions.
Conclusion
Perhaps phrenology did not become a science, but it managed to completely turn the world around and create the prerequisites for the development of many new scientific trends, which later became an independent science. It is not known what the scientific community would be like now if it were not for the inquiring mind of Franz Halle, who was not afraid to become the ancestor of an absolutely revolutionary and unique scientific trend.