Mankind has come a long way towards the creation of computers, without which it is impossible to imagine modern society with all aspects of its life in the fields of industry, the national economy, and household devices. But today, progress does not stand still, opening up new forms of computerization. For several decades, the microprocessor (MP) structure has been at the center of technological development, which is being improved in its functional and structural parameters.
Microprocessor concept
In a general sense, the concept of a microprocessor is represented as a software-controlled device or system based on a large integrated circuit (LSI). Using the MP, data processing operations or the management of information processing systems are performed. At the first stages of development, the MPs were based on separate low-functional microcircuits, in which transistors were present in an amount from several units to hundreds. The simplest typical microprocessor structure could contain a group of microcircuits having common electrical, structural and electrical parameters. Such systems are called a microprocessor kit. Along with MP, in one system could also consist of permanent and operational storage devices, as well as controllers and interfaces for connecting external equipment - again, for compatible communications. As a result of the development of the concept of microcontrollers, the microprocessor set was supplemented with more complex service devices, registers, bus drivers, timers, etc.
Today, the microprocessor is less and less seen as a separate device in the context of practical application. The functional structure and the principle of operation of the microprocessor at the design stages are oriented towards application as part of a computing device designed to perform a number of tasks related to the processing and management of information. A key link in the processes of organizing the operation of a microprocessor device is a controller that serves the control configuration and the interaction modes of the computing core of the system with external equipment. An integrated processor can be considered as an intermediate link between the controller and the microprocessor. Its functionality focuses on the solution of auxiliary tasks not directly related to the appointment of the main MP. In particular, it can be network and communication functions that ensure the operation of a microprocessor device.
Microprocessor Classifications
Even in the simplest configurations, MP designs have many technical and operational parameters by which classification features can be established. To substantiate the basic levels of classification, three functional systems are usually distinguished - operational, interface, and control. In each of these working parts, a number of parameters and distinguishing features that determine the nature of the operation of the device are also provided.
From the point of view of the typical structure of microprocessors, the classification will primarily divide the devices into multi-chip and single-chip models. The first are characterized by the fact that their working units can function offline and execute predetermined commands. And in this example, MPs will be pronounced, in which the emphasis is on the operational function. Such processors focus on data processing. In the same group, for example, three-chip microprocessors can be control and interface. This does not mean that there is no operational function in them, but in order to optimize the majority of communication and power resources, it is assigned to the tasks of generating microcommands or the possibilities of interaction with peripheral systems.
As for single-chip MPs, they are developed with a fixed set of instructions and a compact arrangement of all hardware on a single core. From the point of view of functionality, the structure of a single-chip microprocessor is quite limited, although more reliable than the segment configurations of multi-chip analogs.
Another important classification relates to the interface execution of microprocessors. We are talking about methods of processing input signals, which today continue to be divided into digital and analog. Although the processors themselves are digital devices, in some cases the use of analog streams is justified in price and reliability. For conversion, however, special converters should be used that contribute to the energy load and structural filling of the working platform. Analog MFs (as a rule, single-chip) perform the tasks of standard analog systems - for example, they modulate, generate oscillations, encode and decode a signal.
According to the principle of the temporary organization of the functioning of MP, they are divided into synchronous and asynchronous. The difference lies in the nature of the signal to start a new operation. For example, in the case of a synchronous device, such commands are issued by control modules regardless of the execution of current operations. In the case of asynchronous MPs, a similar signal can be supplied automatically upon completion of the previous operation. For this, an electronic circuit is provided in the logical structure of the asynchronous microprocessor, which ensures the operation of individual components in stand-alone mode, if necessary. The complexity of the implementation of this method of organizing the work of the MP is connected with the fact that not always at the moment of completion of one operation, one or another resource is enough to start the next. Processor memory is usually used as a link that controls priorities in the choice of subsequent operations.
General and special purpose microprocessors
The main scope of MP general purpose are workstations, personal computers, servers and electronic devices intended for mass use. Their functional infrastructure focuses on a wide range of tasks related to information processing. Such devices are developed by SPARC, Intel, Motorola, IBM and others.
Specialized microprocessors, the characteristics and structure of which are built on the basis of powerful controllers, implement complex procedures for processing and converting digital and analog signals. This is a very diverse segment, which presents thousands of types of configurations. The structural features of the MP of this type include the use of a single crystal as a base for the central processor, which, in turn, can be paired with a large number of peripheral devices. These include I / O, blocks with timers, interfaces, analog-to-digital converters. It is also practiced to connect specialized devices like pulse-width-signal generation blocks. Due to the use of internal memory, such systems have a small number of auxiliary components that support the operation of the microcontroller.
Microprocessor specifications
Operating parameters determine the range of tasks of the device and a set of components that, in principle, can be used in a specific microprocessor structure. The main characteristics of MP can be represented as follows:
- Clock frequency. Indicates the number of elementary operations that the system can perform in 1 second. and is expressed in MHz. Despite the differences in structure, different MPs mainly perform similar tasks, but in each case this requires individual time, which is reflected in the number of measures. The more powerful the MP, the more procedures it can perform within the same time unit.
- Bit depth. The number of bits that the device can perform at the same time. Allocate bus capacity, data transfer rate, internal registers, etc.
- The amount of cache memory. This is a memory included in the internal structure of the microprocessor and always working at the limiting frequencies. In physical terms, this is a crystal located on the main microchip of the MP and interfaced with the core of the microprocessor bus.
- Configuration. In this case, we are talking about organizing teams and addressing methods. In practice, the type of configuration may mean the possibility of combining the processes of executing several commands simultaneously, the modes and principles of MP operation, and the presence of peripheral devices in the base microprocessor system.
Microprocessor architecture
By and large, MP is a universal information processor, but in some areas of its operation, special configurations of its structure execution are often required. The architecture of microprocessors reflects the specifics of the application of a particular model, determining the features of hardware and software integrated into the system. Specifically, we can talk about the provided actuators, software registers, addressing methods and sets of commands.
In representing the architecture and features of MP operation, they often use device schemes and interactions of available program registers that contain control information and operands (processed data). Therefore, in the register model there is a group of service registers, as well as segments for storing general-purpose operands. On this basis, the method for executing programs, the memory organization scheme, the operating mode and characteristics of the microprocessor are determined. The structure of a general-purpose MP, for example, may include a software counter, as well as status and control registers for the functioning of the system. The device workflow in the context of the architectural configuration can be represented as a model of register transfers that provide addressing, selection of operands and commands, transfer of results, etc. The execution of different commands regardless of purpose will affect the state register, the contents of which reflect the current state of the processor .
Microprocessor Overview
In this case, the structure should be understood not only as a set of components of the working system, but also means of connection between them, as well as devices that ensure their interaction. As in the functional classification, the content of the structure can be expressed through the three leaving ones - operational content, means of communication with the bus and control infrastructure.
The device of the operating part determines the nature of command decoding and data processing. This complex may include arithmetic-logical function blocks, as well as resistors for temporary storage of information - including the state of the microprocessor. The logical structure provides for the use of 16-bit resistors that perform not only logical and arithmetic procedures, but also shift operations. The work of registers can be organized according to various schemes, which determine, inter alia, their accessibility to the programmer. A separate register is reserved for the function of the battery pack.
Bus couplers are responsible for connecting to peripheral equipment. The range of their tasks also includes sampling data from memory and forming a queue of commands. A typical microprocessor structure includes an IP instruction pointer, address combiners, segment registers and buffers, through which links to address buses are served.
The control device, in turn, generates control signals, decrypts the command, and also ensures the operation of the computing system, giving microcommands on the internal operations of the MP.
The structure of the basic MP
The simplified structure of this microprocessor provides two functional parts:
- Operating room. This block includes data management and processing tools, as well as microprocessor memory. Unlike the full configuration, the structure of the base microprocessor eliminates the presence of segment registers. Some actuators are combined into one function block, which also emphasizes the optimized nature of this architecture.
- Interface In essence, a means of providing communication with the main highway. This part contains the internal memory registers and the adder address.
On the external output channels of the basic MPs, the principle of signal multiplexing is often used. This means that the transmission of signals occurs on common channels with time sharing. In addition, depending on the current mode of operation of the system, the same output can be used to transmit signals for various purposes.
Microprocessor Command Structure
This structure largely depends on the general configuration and the nature of the interaction of the functional blocks of the MP. However, even at the stage of system design, developers lay the possibilities for using a certain array of operations, based on which a set of commands is further formed. The most common command functions include the following:
- Data transfer. The command performs the operations of assigning the values of the operands of the source and receiver. As the latter, registers or memory cells can be used.
- Input Output. Via the interface input-output devices, data is transferred to the ports. In accordance with the structure of the microprocessor and its interaction with peripheral hardware and indoor units, port addresses are set by commands.
- Type conversion. The formats and dimensional values of the operands used are determined.
- Interruptions. This type of command is designed to control software interrupts - for example, it can be a shutdown of the processor function against the background of the beginning of the operation of input-output devices.
- Organization of cycles. Commands change the value of the ECX register, which can be used as a counter when executing certain program code.
As a rule, basic commands are subject to restrictions associated with the ability to operate with certain amounts of memory, while simultaneously managing registers and their contents.
MP management structure
The MP control system is based on a control unit that is connected with several functional parts:
- Signal sensor. It determines the sequence and parameters of pulses, evenly distributing them over time on the buses. Among the characteristics of the sensors, the number of clock cycles and control signals required to perform operations is listed.
- Source of signals. One of the functions of the control unit in the structure of the microprocessor is the generation or processing of signals - that is, their switching within a specific clock cycle on a particular bus.
- Operation code decoder. Decrypts operation codes that are currently in the command register. Together with the definition of the active bus, this procedure also helps to form a sequence of control pulses.
Of no small importance in the control infrastructure is a permanent storage device, which contains in its cells the signals required for processing operations. To account for commands when processing pulse data, an address generation unit can be used - this is a necessary component of the internal structure of the microprocessor, which is included in the interface unit of the system and allows you to read the details of memory registers with signals in full.
Microprocessor components
Most of the functional blocks, as well as external devices, are organized between themselves and the central microcircuit MP through the internal bus. It can be said that this is the backbone network of the device, which provides comprehensive communication. Another thing is that the bus can also contain elements of different functional purpose - for example, circuits for data transmission, transmission lines of memory cells, as well as infrastructure for recording and reading information. . , , , :
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