Few people know that most of the terms denoting the modern system of state governance originates from ... Ancient Rome. Powers with a developed management system have been before in the ancient era - for example, Egypt, China, Greece. However, the monarchical system completely subordinated officials to the will of the pharaoh or king, and democracy in ancient Greece was limited only to the limits of the polis (city and surrounding area). In the era of the formation of the Republic, the question arose of the distribution of managerial functions between the elected representatives of the aristocracy and the people (plebs), as well as the delegation of authority and their limitation. It was at this time that the term “official” appeared - a concept that is very close to us in meaning.
In Russian, this word is associated with the word "duty." But, unlike the “debtor”, the concepts of “position” and “official” carry a positive semantic connotation. The person in the rank is a representative of the state in a certain area, limited by its authority and personifying power. The scale of ranks in the bureaucratic apparatus has its own vertical (from chief, to deputies and to various advisers and assistants), as well as horizontal (when equal representatives of the authorities can suspend and reverse decisions of their colleagues).
An official in ancient Rome was elected only from freely born men (a freedman could not be elected, and his son could already) who reached a certain age. Not only that, for each rank, there was a minimum age for assuming powers that was carefully prescribed in the laws, it also indicated the period for which it was possible to do this, the possibility of being re-elected, and the regional borders over which the jurisdiction of this post was expanded. For example, the power of the consuls was limited to the walls of the city, and the proconsuls controlled the countryside beyond. In relation to the manager, the remaining citizens, even highly born, were privati ​​- private people, subordinates.
It was in Rome and the highest official, called the "imperium", the supreme power - "potestas" - passed to him from the kings of the pre-republican period. The procedure for conferring such powers has been spelled out in a special Curiat law. These ranks had the right to convene the Senate and comitia (assembly of the people), to submit their bills, to make reports. When the country was in danger, for a time a dictator was elected, to whom all the highest power was transferred. This person had the right to single-handedly rule the country. Often, the purpose of the election was attached to his title - for example, “Dictator due to war”. Some of those elected to extraordinary posts proclaimed themselves lifelong rulers (Cornelius Sulla, Gaius Julius Caesar). This position was abolished only by Marcus Aurelius. By the way, such powers were given to officials not only for the time of the danger looming over the country. “Dictator of nail driving” - this was the name of the steward during religious festivals.
An official in the Republic period did not receive a salary. It was an honorary title. A certain toga corresponded to each rank - it was kept by the owner and after leaving his post, they buried him in it. Some posts raised the whole family in a social rank - the sons of those who were in the kurul rank were considered aristocrats; The bearer of this title himself became the ancestor of his surname, his waxen posthumous mask was stored and revered by descendants. The dignitaries also had reserved places in the boxes in the amphitheatres. Starting with the quaestors, those who left the post had the right to be elected to the Senate.
Being in the service of the Republic, the official was limited by the right of appeal and appeal. The request for review of the decision could be submitted to the national assembly, the Senate or an equal colleague of the manager. The ranks could also be permanent, not limited by the validity period, although people were appointed to many posts for no more than 36 months. Such posts included praetors, consuls, quaestors, aediles and censors. With the exception of the tribunes of the people, such places in ancient Rome were mainly claimed by aristocratic families. Their career was predictable: adolescence with the rank of legion officer, then at the age of 27 a quaestor, at 37 an Edil, at 40 a praetor, at 43 a consul or censor.