The Italian wars of 1494-1559 are a grandiose military conflict that took place on the territory of Renaissance Italy. Many creators representing the Italian Renaissance were participants in these events. They were military engineers, diplomats and politicians, some even had to fight with weapons in their hands.
What are Italian wars?
In the wars taking place on the territory of Italy, mainly France, Spain and the Holy See participated in the person of the Roman Empire. The struggle was for the right to possess Italian lands. Using political strife and fragmentation within the Italian state, the rulers of European countries tried to realize their expansionist plans.
Periodization of the Italian Wars (1494-1559)
The Italian wars included a number of military conflicts:
- The first Italian war (1494-1496).
- The second Italian war (1499-1504).
- War of the Cambrian League (1508-1516).
- The first war of Francis I and Charles V (1521-1526).
- The war of the Cognac League (1526-1530).
- The third war of Francis I and Charles V (1536-1538).
- The fourth war of Francis I and Charles V (1542-1546).
- The last Italian war (1551-1559).
Causes of Conflict
The main reason for the Italian wars of 1494-1559 was that the French nobility, merchants and, of course, the king sought to obtain the lands of Italy. The reason was the dynastic claim of the French monarchs. First of all, it spread to the Kingdom of Naples, which from the 13th to the 15th centuries. belonged to the house of Anjouev. After the kingdom was captured by the Argon dynasty (in the second half of the 15th century), Alfonso II was the ruler in Naples at the time of the outbreak of the Italian military conflict. Over the course of the wars, European kings decided to take over the Duchy of Milan.
First italian war
The beginning of the first war falls on 1494. The French army, led by Charles VIII, set out on a campaign against Italy. The entire Apennine peninsula was plundered and fired.
Small North Italian rulers, who were at war with each other, had previously made attempts to extract their own benefit from the current situation, and with the arrival of French troops in Italy, all of them, without resistance, were subordinate to foreign expansion.
In February 1495, the troops of Charles VIII captured Naples. But they failed to consolidate their positions. The invasion of France was a violation of the territorial sphere of influence of Rome and Spain. This threatened the political balance of Europe. Therefore, an anti-French coalition was created - the Holy League, which included Spain, the Italian principalities, Germany, the Holy See in the person of the Pope, Venice and the Duchy of Milan, formerly betrayed to Charles VIII.
Thanks to the coalition, the French managed to oust Naples from the previously captured. Since the French troops were scattered throughout Italian territory, they did not have a single command. This doomed the king of France to defeat. After the defeat of the French by the Spanish government, Ferdinand II was seated on the throne of the Kingdom of Naples.
Second Italian War (1499-1504)
The French troops launched a new campaign against Italy in 1499. This campaign was led by Louis XII, who became the successor of Charles VIII. This time the invasion was caused by the claim of the monarch of France to the Duchy of Milan and other lands of Italy. The Duke of Milan, Louis Moreau escaped, and the French captured the city. In addition, Genoa was occupied. After that, relying on an alliance with Spain, the French took possession of Naples.
Before the start of the war of 1499-1504, France managed to form an alliance with Venice, which during the break in the conflict began to quarrel with Milan and with Pope Alexander VI Borgia. Pope became an ally of Louis XII, to create a new state in Italy, which would rule his son Cesare Borgia.
Using the mercenary units paid for by the Holy See, and with the help of French troops, the son of Alexander VI took possession of almost the whole of Romagna and was proclaimed its duke. Despite the profitability of the Franco-Spanish alliance, in 1502 it collapsed. A new military conflict erupted, in which Spain and France became parties.
In 1503, a battle between the French and Spaniards took place near the city of Cherignola in Italy, as a result of which the troops of Louis XII were defeated. After that, he decided to temporarily abandon attacks on the south of the state. The rulers of the warring parties decided to sign a treaty in French Blois, according to which Milan was assigned to France, and Naples to Spain.
Cambrian League in the Italian Wars
In 1508, Northern Italy again plunged into war. The king of France, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, the Pope, and the Spanish king on December 10, 1508, decided to form a league, named in honor of the city of its creation - Cambrian. This coalition was created to fight Venice.
The united army again went on the offensive. In 1509, the troops of the Venetians were defeated near Anyadello. However, already in 1510, Pope Julius II decided to withdraw from the league and offer the peace of Venice. Teaming up with the Venetian ruler, the Swiss Confederation, England, Germany and a number of small Italian states, the Pope created a new League, which was supposed to oppose France, and called it "Holy."
The Holy League began to operate actively, and already in 1513 the French were defeated by Swiss troops near Novara and left Lombardy. However, the death in the same 1513 of the Pope led to the collapse of the League. The result was the defeat of the former allies. Thus, the new French king Francis I, along with the army of Venice near Marignano, defeated the Swiss.
The preponderance of the French forces led to the signing of a peace treaty. In 1516, in the city of Noyon, the Noyon Treaty was signed between the French and Spanish monarchs, according to which France received Milan.
The first war of Francis I and Charles V
1521 was the beginning of the last period of the wars in Italy, which lasted until 1559. The King of Spain, together with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, launched military operations against France, after which he captured Milan, where the French garrisons were based. Gradually, Charles V converted to his allies the Pope, the King of England, Florence and Mantua (a city in Lombardy). France was supported by Switzerland and Venice.
Taking control of Milan, the French went to Pavia, which was defended by the Spanish and German infantry. The garrisons endured four months of the siege, waiting for reinforcements from the Spanish army. Competently conducted hostilities led to the fact that the French were defeated in the battle of Pavia. Their escape route lay across the Ticino river bridge, but they were unable to cross, since the bridge was blown up by opponents. King Francis I, along with the remnants of his troops, was captured.
The reason for the defeat of the French in the battle of Pavia was the sudden attack of the allied forces. After this, France turned for help to the German Protestant principalities and Ottomans. In the letter that Sultan Suleiman I the Magnificent received from Francis I, there was a proposal to unite in a union.
He was needed by Francis I to fight on equal terms with the Habsburgs. It was the conclusion of this alliance that led to the Turkish invasion of Hungary. In 1526, they defeated the Hungarian troops near Mohacs, and in 1529 they crept up to Vienna. This course of events forced Charles V to withdraw part of his troops from Italian territory and temporarily abandon the capture of France.
Returning from captivity, the king of France entered the new anti-Habsburg coalition, which was organized by the Pope.
Cognac League and its war (1526-1530)
In 1526, a new coalition of France, the Holy See, Venice, Florence and Francesco II (Duke of Milan) was created. It was called the Cognac League. The resumption of hostilities in Italy occurred in 1527. May 4, 1527 the troops of the emperor of Austria captured and plundered the Vatican. Since the Holy See was guarded by only 189 guardsmen, the Austrians did not meet much resistance.
Further in the Cognac War, the following events occurred:
- 1527 - the capture of Milan and Pavia by the French.
- 1528 - the conquest of the Kingdom of Naples by the French troops.
- 1529 - Charles V besieged Florence, which he later captured.
Such active actions led to the fact that in August 1529 a peace treaty was signed in the city of Cambrai. According to this document, France retained Burgundy, but Flanders and Artois were left out of its influence. The Habsburgs gain control of the Kingdom of Naples.
The Third War of Francis and Charles
The sixth stage of the Italian wars of 1494-1559 was the continuation of the confrontation between France and Spain in alliance with the Roman Empire. The main objective of this war was the desire to gain influence over Northern Italy, namely, the Duchy of Milan.
At the beginning of 1500, Louis XII and Ferdinand II signed an agreement that referred to the Kingdom of Naples, or rather it was divided between them. The kings of these lands were overthrown. From this moment, Spain began to compete on an equal footing with the French in the conflict over the rule of Italy. This conflict escalated significantly when Charles V came to power, as he combined the two most powerful crowns at that time - the Holy Roman Empire and Spain. Naturally, France became an adversary of this alliance.
With renewed vigor, the military conflict began after the death of the last Duke of Milan - Francesco II Sforza. Since he did not have children, his place was taken by Charles V, because the niece of the king was the wife of Francesco. Immediately, Charles V announced that Lambardia was becoming controlled by Spain. But the king of France, Francis I, opposed this, as he understood that this would strengthen the position of the Spanish king.
Passing the duchy to his son Philip, Karl set about capturing Italian lands. At the same time, the king of France decided to invade Italy. The answer to this was Karl’s campaign in France, but his troops stopped the French. The Spaniards had no choice but to return to their previous positions.
Engaged in the seizure of French territory, Karl lost sight of the events taking place on the Apennine Peninsula. And there the troops of Francis, having received serious support from Piedmont, moved in the direction of Genoa. Having reached the city and joining forces with the Turks, the French did not find the city but an impregnable fortress and, deciding not to destroy the army, went to Piedmont. Charles V, caught between the Turkish and French armies, had to agree to peace talks.
Thanks to the mediation of the Pope, in 1538 France and the Roman Empire concluded a ceasefire in Nice for a period of 10 years. At the same time, the English king Henry VIII decided to join the Habsburgs in order to prevent the strengthening of the French.
Fourth war of kings
The signing of the Nice Armistice, which paused in the Italian wars of 1494-1559, did not resolve the conflict, since not a single monarch was pleased with the outcome of the war.
A year of negotiations failed. Then Karl was asked to resolve disputes by marrying his daughter and youngest son Francis. After the death of the emperor, the couple should become rulers of the Netherlands, Burgundy and the county of Charolais. Francis refused Milan and Savoy, ratified the treaties drawn up in Madrid and Cambrai, and signed an alliance with Charles. To abandon Milan, the French ruler was not going to. He was against ratification of the treaties, so the proposal was rejected.
Negotiations lasted until 1542, but there were no results. Then, in July 1542, Francis again launched a war, the basis of which was a number of reasons (according to the French king). The offensive of Karl immediately began.
The contradictions that arose between the French and English monarchs, based on the failure of Francis to fulfill his promises, led to the fact that in February 1543, Charles and Henry signed an offensive alliance against France, according to which the parties were obliged to invade French territory for two years. In June of that year, the British declared war on the French.
In the north of France, Henry launched military operations. At this time, Karl fought in the east with William. After breaking it and signing the peace treaty in Velon, Carl opposed Francis. But he decided to retreat.
In the summer of 1543, a combined fleet of French and Ottomans landed near Nice and began a siege. Under such pressure, the city surrendered on August 22.
At the same time, disagreements appeared between the Turks and the French. The Ottoman fleet commander Barbarossa threatened to sail home if Francis I did not begin to fulfill his demands for supplying the Allied fleet. To preserve the union, the French monarch gave Barbarossa Toulon, which was used by the Turks as a military base. However, he did not help the Turkish fleet to conquer Tunisia. Therefore, in 1544, the Allied forces sailed to Istanbul.
During the winter of 1543-1544, Francis was able to significantly strengthen his troops. The imperial commanders did not waste time. Two reinforced armies met near the village of Ceresole in April 1544. Although the French won, Francis decided to withdraw most of the troops to defend France, as a major offensive was expected from Henry VIII and Charles V. Serious military clashes in Italy ended after the French defeated at Serravalle Scrivia in the summer of 1544.
Karl gathered two armies and went on the offensive. However, the lack of money and the religious schism that occurred in Germany required the presence of the ruler on the throne. Therefore, he sent Henry a letter asking him to continue the offensive on his own or to give him the opportunity to make peace. Without waiting for an answer, Charles V went to sign a peace treaty with the French king. This happened in September 1544 in Krepi.
According to the agreement, the monarchs refused claims to Burgundy and the Kingdom of Naples. It also stipulated the conditions for the marriage of the Duke of Orleans and one of Karl's daughters, followed by the transfer of certain duchies to them. In addition, Francis pledged to help Karl with a religious split. Unhappy with the signing of such an agreement were the English king and the Turkish Sultan. The sudden death of the Duke of Orleans in 1545 generally called him into question.
The complete lack of money and troops led the ongoing war to a standstill. Therefore, in 1546, Henry and Francis signed a peace treaty in Ardre. According to him, the British owned Boulogne until 1544, after which they exchanged the county for a certain amount of money. Henry promised to stop the attacks on Scotland without good reason.
The last of the Italian wars
The outbreak of hostilities took place at sea. In 1551, the city of Tripoli was besieged by the Ottomans. After they were joined by the French. The attack of Henry II (the French king) on Charles V led to the fact that the Turkish sultan sent his galleys to the area of the Western Mediterranean. The allied fleet of the French and Turks marched with rout and robberies practically along the entire coast, and in 1553 invaded Corsica.
Military operations on land were not so successful. On February 5, 1556, Henry II and Philip II signed an agreement according to which Franche-Comté departed for Spain. But no one was going to comply with this agreement for a long time. The impending Reformation and the complete impoverishment of the treasury both in France and in Spain led the rulers to sit at the negotiating table in 1559 and soon signed the Cato-Cambresian peace treaty.
Last peace treaty
The Cato-Cambresian Peace - two treaties that were signed in 1559 in the city of Kato-Cambresi and ended the Italian wars. According to the first treaty, dated March 12 and April 2, 1559, peace was concluded between Queen Elizabeth I of England and the French monarch Henry II.
France under this agreement received the coastal fortress of Calais, however, for eight years, it pledged to pay England half a million ecu.
The second treaty, which was concluded on April 3, 1559, put an end to the war of France and Spain. The main points of the contract:
- Spain took possession of Thionville, part of Luxembourg, Marienburg, Monmedi and the areas of Charolais and Artois.
- In addition, Spain remained almost the entire territory of Italy.
- France gained control of Savoy, Piedmont, Corsica, Margrave of Saluzzo and several Lorraine bishoprics.
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The main result of the Italian war of 1494-1559 was the Spanish hegemony in Italy. Spain has become a leading European state. France, on the other hand, had to be content with those small territories that it had crossed under the Cato-Cambresian treaty. She did not break into a leading position in Europe because of the religious wars that weakened her. Italy after the war was left without influence on European politics.
The only positive aspect of this war was that the majority of soldiers and officers from France and Germany, returning home, introduced the ideals of humanism and the Renaissance into the cultures of their countries, which became the impetus for the development of the Renaissance.