At the beginning of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in a state of crisis. Exhausted by the wars, a backward country in all respects needed a radical transformation. The reforms of Tanzimat, which Abdul Majid I carried out since 1839, had a positive effect on it. But in the 70s, during the reign of Sultan Abdul-Aziz, they came to naught. The state has practically gone bankrupt. Tax-oppressed Christians revolted. The threat of intervention by European powers hung. Then the new Ottomans, led by Midhat Pasha who dreamed of a better future for the state, held several palace coups, as a result of which Abdul-Hamid II came to power.
The man, whom the progressive intelligentsia had hoped for, became one of the most cruel autocrats of the empire, and the period of his reign was called “zulum,” which is translated from Turkish as “oppression” or “tyranny”.
Personality of Abdul Hamid II
Abdul Hamid II was born on September 22, 1842. His parents were Sultan Abdul Majid I and his fourth wife, Tirimyuzhgan Kadyn Effendi, who, according to one version, had Armenian, and according to the other, Circassian origin.
The future emperor received an excellent education. He knew military affairs especially well. Abdul-Hamid was fluent in several languages, was not indifferent to poetry and music. He especially loved the opera, which conquered the future caliph during his travels in Europe. For the Ottoman Empire, such art was something incomprehensible and alien, but Abdul-Hamid made a lot of efforts for its development in his homeland. He even wrote the opera himself and staged it in Istanbul. When Abdul-Hamid ascended the throne on August 31, 1876, no one could have imagined that he would become the creator of not only works of art, but also a bloody regime that would take hundreds of thousands of lives.
The accession to the throne of the "blood sultan"
In those years, the new Ottomans tried their best to achieve change and constitution. The conservative-minded Abdul-Aziz was deposed with their participation on May 30, 1876, and was killed a few days later. In its place, the constitutional movement put Murat V, the brother of Abdul-Hamid. He was distinguished by his meek character, sympathized with enlightenment and reform. However, bloody feuds, suddenly gained power and alcohol abuse caused severe nervous breakdown in the new Sultan, pampered by life in greenhouse conditions. Murat V was unable to rule the empire, and most importantly, he could not give the country a constitution.
The situation in the state and beyond has escalated. Serbia and Montenegro declared war on the empire, trying to defend the Christians of Bosnia and Herzegovina, who rebelled against the Turkish yoke. Murat V was declared insane, and Abdul-Hamid II received power, promising the new Ottomans to fulfill all their requirements.
Proclamation of the first Turkish constitution
At heart, the caliph was not a supporter of liberal ideas. But to express openly his position leading him to the throne of the Turkish intelligentsia was dangerous. The new Ottoman sultan began to delay the proclamation of the constitution, citing its imperfection. The basic law was constantly remade and modified. Meanwhile, Russia demanded a peace with Serbia and Montenegro, and, together with the European powers, began to develop a draft autonomy for Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In the current tense situation, Midhat Pasha was ready for any sacrifice for the sake of a constitution. Abdul-Hamid appointed the head of the new Ottomans as the great vizier and agreed to publish it subject to the addition of one paragraph to Art. 113, according to which, the sultan can expel from the country any objectionable to him. The constitution, which granted freedom and security to every person, regardless of religion, was proclaimed on December 23, 1876 at the Istanbul Conference. By his decision, Abdul-Hamid temporarily paralyzed the activities of Europe for the liberation of Christians and retained virtually unlimited power.
The massacre of the new Ottomans
Immediately after the proclamation of the constitution, the caliph began to abuse the treasury and introduce repressions against the capital's newspapers. Such actions led to violent clashes with Midhat Pasha, who openly showed dissatisfaction with the activities of the Sultan. Abdul Hamid ignored the protests until the great vizier wrote a bold letter to him. In it, Midhat Pasha argued that the caliph itself impedes the development of the state. The Ottoman sultan, outraged by such arrogance, ordered the head of the constitutionalists to be arrested and taken to the Izzedin ship, whose captain was supposed to take Midhat Pasha to any foreign port of his choice. The Caliph had the right to this thanks to the addition to Art. 113 of the Constitution of the Ottoman Empire.
In the following months, a lot of repression was carried out against the liberals, but they did not cause public outrage. The creators of the first constitution did not care about class support, so their good undertakings were unimpeded by the Abdul-Hamid II who deceived them.
The beginning of the Zulum era
The caliph's plans did not include submission to the constitution, or compliance with the requirements of the European powers. The protocol drawn up by them shortly after the Istanbul Conference, demanding an end to the violence against striking Christians, Abdul-Hamid II simply ignored. And in April 1877, Russia declared war on the empire, which showed all the putrefaction and backwardness of the sultanate regime. In March 1878, it ended in the complete defeat of the Ottoman Empire. And while the results of the war were summed up at the Berlin Congress, the cunning Abdul-Hamid dissolved the parliament for an indefinite period, thereby depriving the constitution of force.
The war brought tremendous territorial losses to the empire. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Romania and other provinces came out from under its authority. A huge indemnity was imposed on the state, and Abdul-Hamid II, following the results of the congress, was to carry out reforms in the areas populated by Armenians. It would seem that the life of Christians should improve, but the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire did not fulfill his promises. Moreover, after an inglorious defeat in the war, liberal thought was completely crushed, and black times began in the country, called the Zulum.
The economic decline of the country
Abdul Hamid completely seized power. He tried to maintain the territorial integrity of the state through the ideology of pan-Islamism. The 99th caliph indulged the interests of Arab, Circassian and Kurdish feudal lords, the highest Muslim clergy and large bureaucracy. They actually ruled the country. Porta became a meek toy in their hands. The treasury was replenished due to external loans. Debts grew, and concessions were granted to foreigners. The state declared itself bankrupt again. The empire’s creditors established the Ottoman Government Debt Office. The country fell completely under international financial control, and dominated by foreign capital, which simply robbed the already poor population. Tax oppression in the country has increased significantly. A great power fell into decay, turning into a foreign semi-colony.
Paranoia and tyranny
Under the circumstances, the Sultan was most afraid of the fate of Abdul-Aziz and Murat V. The fear of a possible palace coup and deposition turned into paranoia, to which absolutely everything was subordinated. Yildiz Palace, in which the caliph settled, was filled with guards.
The bureaus created by him, which controlled the activities of all government departments, were constantly working there, and the fate of the highest dignities of the empire was decided. Any trifle that caused displeasure of Abdul Hamid could cost a person not only the loss of his post, but also his life. The intelligentsia became the main enemy of the Sultan, so he actively encouraged ignorance. Not a single minister who led the Port departments had a higher education. Because of him, it was possible to be considered unreliable, and therefore, objectionable to the Sultan. Provincial officials could not boast of a high cultural level. Outrage and venality reigned in their circles. Abdul-Hamid himself preferred not to leave the palace. The only exception was the selamlik. He organized a large-scale espionage network and created a secret police, which became famous throughout the world. It took a fabulous amount from the state treasury.
Spy Network and Secret Police
Not a single person in the country felt safe. People feared even the closest: husbands - wives, fathers - children. Denunciations and subsequent arrests and links were common. Often a person was simply killed without trial. People knew the leaders of the investigation by sight and when they appeared they tried to hide. Surveying was conducted for the highest ranks. The Sultan knew absolutely everything about them, including eating habits. Even those closest to the caliph could not live in peace. Inside the palace camarilla hung a painful atmosphere of fear and suspicion. Spies were in every corner of the country. Almost all supporters of reforms emigrated from it.
Comprehensive censorship
The press was severely censored. The number of publications has fallen sharply. Words such as "freedom", "tyranny", "equality" were considered seditious. For their use it was possible to lose a life.
The books of Voltaire, Byron, Tolstoy, and even Shakespeare, in particular his tragedy Hamlet, were banned, because it killed the king. Turkish writers did not even try to touch on social and political issues in their works.
Universities were carefully monitored. Any freethinking was stopped in the bud. The history of Islam and the Ottoman dynasty has replaced traditional lectures on world history.
Mass extermination of Armenians
The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire deliberately sowed discord between the Muslim and Christian population of the country. Such a policy was beneficial. Enmity made people weaker and distracted from the main problems. No one in the state could give a fitting rebuff to the caliph. He provoked hatred between nations using the detective apparatus and the police. Then, with the help of the Kurds, the cavalry "Hamidiye" was created. Sultan thugs terrified the population. Especially Armenians suffered from their terror. From 1894 to 1896, about 300 thousand people were killed.
Armenians at the same time paid tribute to the Kurds and the taxes of the empire. Disenfranchised, tired of the arbitrariness of the authorities, people tried to protest. The answer was looted villages strewn with corpses. Armenians were burned alive, mutilated and killed by entire villages. So, in the Erzurum massacre, both military personnel and the ordinary Turkish population took part. And in a letter from one Ottoman soldier addressed to the family, it was said that not a single Turk was wounded, and not a single Armenian was left alive.
The origin of the opposition
In the midst of widespread terror, devastation and poverty, the Turkish army stood out. In it, the sultan made dramatic changes. They had high-class military training and received excellent education. Essentially, Turkish soldiers became the most enlightened people in the empire. Literate in every way, they could not calmly look at what the despotic regime of Abdul-Hamid the 2nd was doing with their country. Before their eyes stood a humiliated and ruined empire, where arbitrariness and embezzlement, pogroms and robberies reigned; which was actually ruled by Europe, which took away its best provinces.
No matter how much the Sultan strangled liberal thoughts in the minds of the new intelligentsia, they were still born and developed. And in 1889, a secret group of Young Turks appeared, who laid the foundation for the resistance to the bloody despotism of Abdul-Hamid. In 1892, Porta found out about him. The cadets were arrested, but after several months the sultan released them and even allowed them to continue their studies. Abdul-Hamid did not want to increase the atmosphere in schools and wrote off their actions on his youthful trick. But the revolutionary movement continued to expand.
Young turkish revolution
In ten years, many Young Turkish organizations have appeared. Leaflets, pamphlets, and newspapers were distributed in the cities, in which the Sultan's regime was denounced and its overthrow was promoted. Anti-government sentiment reached its climax when, in 1905, a revolution took place in Russia that vividly responded to the hearts of the Turkish intelligentsia.
The Caliph lost his peace and spent sleepless nights in fear that rumors about her, in particular about the rebellion of Russian sailors on the battleship “Potemkin”, would penetrate into Istanbul. He even ordered an investigation into Turkish warships to reveal revolutionary sentiment. Sultan Abdul-Hamid II felt that his rule was coming to an end. And in 1905 an attempt was made on him, which ended in failure.
Two years later, a congress of all Young Turkish organizations was held, and it was decided to depose the Sultan by joint efforts and restore the constitution. The population of Macedonia and the army of the Sultan sided with the Young Turks. However, the caliph was not overthrown. He made concessions, and the constitution was again proclaimed on July 10, 1908.
The end of the Zulum era
The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire fulfilled all the requirements of the Young Turks, but secretly plotted against the constitution. History repeated itself, only the end was different. Together with his son Burkhaneddin, they gathered adherents among the metropolitan regiments, scattering gold to the right and left. On an April night in 1909, they organized a rebellion. Young Turks from the same regiments were captured, and many were killed. The army moved to the parliament building and demanded a change of ministers. Abdul-Hamid later tried to prove that he was not related to the rebellion, but to no avail. The Young Turkish “Army of Action” captured Istanbul and occupied the palace of the Sultan. Surrounded by his reproaching minions and family members, cut off from the world, he was forced to surrender. On April 27, 1909, the Sultan was overthrown and exiled to Thessaloniki. Thus put an end to the tyranny regime, which Abdul-Hamid diligently created. Wives went with him. But not all, but only the most faithful.
Family of the 99th Caliph
The family life of Abdul Hamid was typical of the Ottoman Sultan. The Caliph married 13 times. Of all his chosen ones, he was especially attached to two: Mushfik and Salih. It is authentically known that they did not leave the deposed Sultan in trouble and went with him to exile. Not all the wives of the Ottoman Sultan so successfully developed relations. He divorced Safinaz Nurefzun during his reign, and Thessaloniki separated him from some. The heirs of the caliph were waiting for an unenviable fate after Abdul Hamid was overthrown. The children of the Sultan were expelled from Turkey in 1924. The former caliph himself returned to Istanbul a few years after exile and died there in 1918.