The 16th century in Russia is the time of the formation of a centralized Russian state. It was during this period that feudal fragmentation was overcome - a process that characterizes the regular development of feudalism. Cities are growing, the population is growing, and trade and foreign policy relations are developing. Changes of a socio-economic nature lead to the inevitable intensive exploitation of the peasants and their subsequent enslavement.
The history of Russia of the 16-17th century is not easy - this is the period of formation of statehood, the formation of the foundations. Bloody events, wars, attempts to defend themselves from the echoes of the Golden Horde and the Time of Troubles that followed demanded a tough hand of government, rallying the people.
The formation of a centralized state
Prerequisites for the unification of Russia and overcoming feudal fragmentation were outlined in the 13th century. This was especially noticeable in the Principality of Vladimir, located in the northeast. Development was interrupted by the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols, which not only slowed down the process of unification, but also caused noticeable damage to the Russian people. The revival began only in the 14th century: the restoration of agriculture, the construction of cities, and the establishment of economic ties. The Moscow principality and Moscow, whose territory was gradually growing, were gaining more and more weight. The development of Russia in the 16th century followed the path of strengthening class contradictions. In order to subjugate the peasants, the feudal lords had to act together, use new forms of political ties, and strengthen the central apparatus.
The second factor that contributed to the unification of the principalities and the centralization of power is a vulnerable foreign policy position. To fight against foreign invaders and the Golden Horde, it was necessary to rally everyone. The only way the Russians were able to triumph on the Kulikovo field and at the end of the 15th century. finally throw off the Tatar-Mongolian oppression, which lasted more than two hundred years.
The process of formation of a single state was expressed primarily in the unification of the territories of previously independent states into one great Moscow principality and in a change in the political organization of society, the nature of statehood. From a geographical point of view, the process was completed by the beginning of the 16th century, but the political apparatus was formed only in the second half.
Vasily III
We can say that the 16th century in the history of Russia began with the reign of Vasily III, who ascended the throne in 1505 at the age of 26. He was the second son of Ivan III the Great. The sovereign of all Russia was married twice. For the first time on the representative of the old boyar clan Solomonia Saburova (in the photo below - face reconstruction along the skull). The wedding took place on September 4, 1505, but for 20 years of marriage, she never gave birth to an heir. The worried prince demanded a divorce. He quickly got the consent of the church and the boyar duma. A similar case of official divorce followed by the exile of his wife to the monastery is unprecedented in the history of Russia.
The second wife of the sovereign was Elena Glinskaya, who came from an old Lithuanian clan. She bore him two sons. Widowed in 1533, she literally made a coup at the court, and Russia in the 16th century for the first time received the ruler, however, not very popular with the boyars and people.
Foreign and domestic policy of Basil III, in fact, was a logical continuation of his father’s actions, which were entirely aimed at centralizing power and strengthening the authority of the church.
Domestic policy
Vasily III advocated the unlimited power of the sovereign. In the fight against the feudal fragmentation of Russia and its supporters, he actively enjoyed the support of the church. With those who were objectionable, easily dealt with, sending into exile or executing an execution. The autocratic nature, noticeable even in the years of youth, was fully manifested. During the years of his reign, the importance of the boyars at court fell significantly, but the land nobility increased. In the implementation of church policy, he preferred the Josephites.
In 1497, Vasily III adopted a new Code of Laws based on Russian Truth, Charter and Judicial Letters, court decisions on certain categories of issues. It was a set of laws and was created with the aim of systematizing and streamlining the then existing legal norms and was an important measure on the way to centralizing power. The sovereign actively supported the construction; during his reign, the Archangel Cathedral, the Church of the Ascension of the Lord in Kolomenskoye, new settlements, fortresses and fortifications were erected. In addition, he actively, like his father, continued to “collect” Russian lands, annexing the Pskov Republic, Ryazan.
Relations with the Kazan Khanate under Basil III
Russia's foreign policy in the 16th century, or rather, in the first half, is largely a reflection of domestic. The sovereign sought to unite as many lands as possible, subordinate them to central authority, which, in fact, can be regarded as the conquest of new territories. Having done away with the Golden Horde, Russia almost immediately went on the offensive on the khanates formed as a result of its collapse. Turkey and the Crimean Khanate showed interest in Kazan, which was of great importance for Russia due to the fertility of the lands and their successful strategic location, as well as due to the constant threat of raids. In anticipation of the death of Ivan III in 1505, the Kazan khan suddenly began a war that lasted until 1507. After several defeats, the Russians were forced to retreat and then make peace. History repeated itself in 1522-1523, and then in 1530-1531. The Kazan Khanate did not give up until Ivan the Terrible entered the throne.
Russian-Lithuanian war
The main reason for the military conflict is the desire of the Moscow prince to conquer and take control of all Russian lands, as well as Lithuania's attempt to take revenge for the last defeat in 1500-1503, which cost her the loss of 1-3 parts of all territories. Russia in the 16th century, after Vasily III came to power, was in a rather difficult foreign policy position. Having been defeated by the Kazan Khanate, she was forced to confront the Principality of Lithuania, which signed an anti-Russian agreement with the Crimean Khan.
The war began as a result of Vasily III’s refusal to fulfill an ultimatum (land return) in the summer of 1507 after an attack on the Chernigov and Bryansk lands of the Lithuanian army and on the Verkhov principalities - Crimean Tatars. In 1508, the rulers began negotiations and entered into a peace agreement, according to which the Principality of Lithuania with the surrounding area was returned to the Principality of Lithuania.
The war of 1512-1522 became a natural continuation of previous conflicts over the territory. Despite the peace concluded, relations between the parties were extremely tense, robberies and skirmishes at the borders continued. The reason for the action was the death of the Grand Duchess of Lithuania and sister Vasily III Elena Ivanovna. The Principality of Lithuania entered into another alliance with the Crimean Khanate, after which the latter began to make numerous raids in 1512. The Russian prince declared war on Sigismund I and advanced his main forces to Smolensk. In subsequent years, with varying success, a number of campaigns were made. One of the largest battles took place near Orsha on September 8, 1514. In 1521, both sides had other foreign policy problems, and they were forced to make peace for 5 years. According to the agreement, Russia in the 16th century received Smolensk lands, but at the same time refused from Vitebsk, Polotsk and Kiev, as well as from the return of prisoners of war.
Ivan IV (Terrible)
Basil III died of illness when his eldest son was only 3 years old. Anticipating his imminent demise and the ensuing struggle for the throne (at that time the sovereign had two younger brothers Andrei Staritsky and Yuri Dmitrovsky), he formed a "seven-member" commission from the boyars. They were supposed to save Ivan before the 15th anniversary. In fact, the board of trustees was in power for about a year, and then began to fall apart. Russia in the 16th century (1545) received a full-fledged ruler and the first king in its history in the person of Ivan IV, known to the whole world under the name of Grozny. In the photo above - reconstruction of the shape of the skull.
It is impossible not to mention his family. Historians vary in numbers, naming the names of 6 or 7 women who were considered the wives of the king. Some died a mysterious death, others were exiled to the monastery. Ivan the Terrible had three children. The elders (Ivan and Fedor) were born from their first wife, and the youngest (Dmitry Uglitsky) from the last - M.F. Naga, who played a big role in the country's history during the time of trouble.
Reforms of Ivan the Terrible
The domestic policy of Russia in the 16th century under Ivan the Terrible was still aimed at centralizing power, as well as building important state institutions. To this end, in conjunction with the "Chosen Rada" the king carried out a number of reforms. The most significant are the following.
- The organization of the Zemsky Cathedral in 1549 as the highest estate-representative institution. It represented all classes except the peasantry.
- The adoption of a new criminal in 1550, which continued the policy of the previous normative legal act, as well as for the first time legitimizing a single unit for measuring taxes.
- Lip and Zemstvo reforms in the early 50s of the 16th century.
- Formation of a system of orders, including Chalobitny, Streletsky, Pechatny, etc.
During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, Russia's foreign policy developed in three directions: the south — the struggle against the Crimean Khanate, the east — the expansion of the state’s borders, and the west — the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea.
In the east
After the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Astrakhan and Kazan Khanates created a constant threat to Russian lands, and the Volga Trade Route was concentrated in their hands. In total, Ivan the Terrible undertook three trips to Kazan, as a result of the latter she was taken by storm (1552). After 4 years, Astrakhan was annexed, in 1557 most of Bashkiria and Chuvashia voluntarily joined the Russian state, and then the Nogai Horde recognized its dependence. So the bloody story ended. Russia at the end of the 16th century opened its way to Siberia. The wealthy industrialists, who received letters from the king to own land on the Tobol River, equipped at their own expense a detachment of free Cossacks, led by Ermak.
In the West
In an attempt to gain access to the Baltic Sea for 25 years (1558-1583), Ivan IV waged a grueling Livonian war. Its beginning was accompanied by successful Russian campaigns, 20 cities were taken, including Narva and Derpt, troops were approaching Tallinn and Riga. The Livonian Order was defeated, but the war became protracted, as several European states were drawn into it. The unification of Lithuania and Poland into the Commonwealth played a great role. The situation reversed and after a long confrontation in 1582, a ceasefire was concluded for 10 years. A year later, the Plyus armistice was concluded , according to which Russia lost Livonia, but returned all the captured cities except Polotsk.
On South
In the south, the Crimean Khanate formed after the collapse of the Golden Horde was still haunted. The main task of the state in this direction was to strengthen the borders from the raids of the Crimean Tatars. For these purposes, steps were taken to develop the Wild Field. The first serif features began to appear, i.e., defensive lines from the rubble of the forest, in the intervals of which were wooden fortresses (fortresses), in particular, Tula and Belgorod.
Tsar Fedor I
Ivan the Terrible died on March 18, 1584. The circumstances of the tsarist disease are called into question by historians to this day. His son Fyodor Ivanovich ascended the throne , having received this right after the death of the eldest son of Ivan. According to Grozny himself, he was more likely a hermit and faster, more suitable for church service than for reign. Historians are generally inclined to believe that he was weak in health and mind. The new king participated little in government. He was under the tutelage of the boyars and nobles, and then his enterprising brother-in-law Boris Godunov. The first reigned, and the second ruled, and everyone knew this. Fedor I died on January 7, 1598, leaving no offspring and thereby interrupting the Moscow Rurikovich dynasty itself.
At the turn of the 16-17th centuries, Russia was experiencing a deep socio-economic and political crisis, the growth of which was facilitated by the protracted Livonian War, the oprichnina and the Tatar invasion. All these circumstances ultimately led to the Time of Troubles, which began with the struggle for the deserted royal throne.