Many people are used to thinking that geography deals with only one question: "How to get from point A to point B?" In fact, in the sphere of interests of this science there is a whole complex of serious and urgent problems. Modern geography has a rather complex structure, which involves its division into many different disciplines. One of them is physical and geographical science. It is about her that will be discussed in this article.
Geography as a science
Geography is a science that studies the spatial features of the organization of the geographic shell of the Earth. The word itself has ancient Greek roots: "geo" - earth and "grapho" - I write. That is, literally, the term "geography" can be translated as "geography."
The first geography scientists were the ancient Greeks: Strabo, Claudius Ptolemy (who published an eight-volume work entitled "Geography"), Herodotus, Eratosthenes. The latter, by the way, the first measured the parameters of the globe, and did it quite accurately.
The main shells of the planet are the lithosphere, atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere. Geography focuses on them. She explores the features of the interaction of the components of the geographical shell at all these levels, as well as the laws of their territorial distribution.
Basic geographical sciences and directions of geography
Geographical science is usually divided into two main sections. It:
- Physical and geographical science.
- Socio-economic geography.
The first studies natural objects (seas, mountain systems, lakes, etc.), and the second studies the phenomena and processes that occur in society. Each of them has its own research methods, which can differ dramatically. And if the disciplines from the first section of geography are closer to the natural sciences (physics, chemistry, etc.), then the second - to the humanities (such as sociology, economics, history, psychology).
In this article we will pay attention to the first section of geographical science, listing all the main areas of geography namely physical.
Physical geography and its structure
It will take a lot of time to list all the problems that interest physical geographers. Accordingly, the number of scientific disciplines is far from one dozen. The features of soil distribution, the dynamics of closed water bodies, the formation of vegetation cover in natural zones are all examples of physical geography, or rather, the problems that interest it.
Physical geography can be structured according to two principles: territorial and component. According to the first, the physical geography of the world, continents, oceans, individual countries or regions is highlighted. According to the second principle, a whole range of sciences is distinguished, each of which is engaged in the study of a particular shell of the planet (or its individual components). So, physical and geographical science includes a large number of narrow industry disciplines. Among them:
- sciences studying the lithosphere (geomorphology, geography of soils with the basics of soil science);
- atmospheric sciences (meteorology, climatology);
- sciences studying the hydrosphere (oceanology, limnology, glaciology and others);
- sciences studying the biosphere (biogeography).
In turn, general physical geography summarizes the results of studies of all these sciences and deduces the global laws governing the functioning of the geographic shell of the Earth.
Sciences studying the lithosphere
The lithosphere and topography of the Earth is one of the main objects of study of physical geography. They are studied mainly by two scientific geographical disciplines - this is geology and geomorphology.
The solid shell of our planet, including the earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle, is the lithosphere. Geography is interested in both the internal processes that occur in it, and their external manifestations, expressed in the relief of the earth's surface.
Geomorphology is a science that studies relief: its origin, principles of formation, development dynamics, as well as patterns of geographical distribution. What processes form the external appearance of our planet? This is the main question that geomorphology is called to answer.
Level, tape measure, goniometer - these tools were basic in the work of geomorphologists once. Today, they are increasingly using methods such as computer and mathematical modeling. The closest ties to geomorphology are with such sciences as geology, geodesy, soil science and urban planning.
The research results of this science are of great practical importance. After all, geomorphologists not only study landforms, but also evaluate it for the needs of builders, predict negative phenomena (landslides, landslides, mudflows, etc.), monitor the state of the coastline, and so on.
The central object of study of geomorphology is relief. This is the complex of all the irregularities of the earth's surface (or the surface of other planets and celestial bodies). Depending on the scale, the relief is usually divided into: megarelief (or planetary), macrorelief, mesorelief and microrelief. The main elements of any form of relief are a slope, a peak, a thalweg, a watershed, a bottom and others.
The relief of the earth's surface is formed under the influence of two processes: endogenous (or internal) and exogenous (external). The former originate in the thickness of the earth's crust and mantle: these are tectonic movements, magmatism, and volcanism. Exogenous processes include two dialectically related processes: denudation (destruction) and accumulation (accumulation of solid material).
Among the exogenous processes in geomorphology, the following are distinguished:
- slope processes (landforms - landslides, screes, abrasive shores, etc.);
- karst (funnels, carras, underground caves);
- suffusion ("steppe saucers", hearths);
- fluvial (deltas, river valleys, beams, ravines, etc.);
- glacial (oz, kama, moraine humps);
- eolian (dunes and dunes);
- biogenic (atolls and coral reefs);
- anthropogenic (mines, quarries, embankments, dumps, etc.).
Soil Science
There is a special course at universities: "Geography of soils with the basics of soil science." It includes related knowledge of three scientific disciplines: in fact, geography, physics and chemistry.
Soil (or soil) is the upper layer of the earth's crust, which is characterized by fertility. It consists of parent rock, water, and also decayed remnants of living organisms.
Soil geography is studying the general laws of zonal distribution of soils, as well as developing principles of soil-geographical zoning. Science is divided into general soil geography and regional. The latter studies and describes the soil cover of specific regions, and also compiles the corresponding soil maps.
The main research methods of this science are comparative geographical and cartographic. Recently, the method of computer modeling has also been increasingly used (as in general - in geography).
This scientific discipline arose in the 19th century. Her founding father is considered to be an outstanding scientist and researcher - Vasily Dokuchaev. He devoted his life to studying the soils of the southern part of the Russian Empire. Based on his numerous studies, he identified the main factors of soil formation, as well as patterns of zonal distribution of soils. He also belongs to the idea of using shelterbelts to protect the fertile soil layer from erosion.
The training course "Soil Geography" is taught at universities, at geographical and biological faculties. The very first department of soil science in Russia was opened in 1926 in Leningrad, and the first textbook on the same discipline was published in 1960.
Hydrosphere Sciences
The hydrosphere of the Earth is one of its shells. Her comprehensive study is the science of hydrology, in the structure of which a number of narrower disciplines are distinguished.
Hydrology (literal translation from the Greek language: "the doctrine of water") is a science that studies all the water bodies of the planet Earth: rivers, lakes, swamps, oceans, glaciers, underground waters, as well as artificial reservoirs. In addition, her scientific interests include processes that are characteristic of this shell (such as freezing, evaporation, melting, etc.).
In its research, hydrology actively uses the methods of both geographical science and the methods of physics, chemistry, and mathematics. The main tasks of this science include the following:
- study of the water cycle in nature;
- assessment of the impact of human activity on the state and regime of water bodies;
- description of the hydrological grid of individual regions;
- development of methods and methods for rational use of the Earth’s water resources.
The hydrosphere of the Earth consists of the waters of the oceans (about 97%) and land. Accordingly, there are two large sections of this science: oceanology and land hydrology.
Oceanology (the doctrine of the ocean) is a science whose object of study is the Ocean and its structural elements (seas, bays, currents, etc.). This science focuses on the interaction of the Ocean with the continents, the atmosphere, and the animal kingdom. In fact, oceanology is a complex of various small disciplines that are engaged in a detailed study of the chemical, physical and biological processes that occur in the oceans.
Today it is customary to distinguish 5 oceans on our beautiful planet (although some researchers believe that there are four of them). These are the Pacific Ocean (the largest), the Indian (the warmest), the Atlantic (the most turbulent), the Arctic (the coldest) and the South (the "youngest").
Land hydrology is a large branch of hydrology that studies all the surface waters of the Earth. In its structure, it is customary to distinguish several more scientific disciplines:
- Potamology (subject of study: hydrological processes in rivers, as well as features of the formation of river systems);
- limnology (studies the water regime of lakes and reservoirs);
- glaciology (object of study: glaciers, as well as other ices located in the hydro, lithium, and atmosphere);
- bog science (studies bogs and the features of their hydrological regime).
In hydrology, a key place belongs to stationary and field research. The data obtained as a result of these methods are later processed in special laboratories.
In addition to all these sciences, the hydrosphere of the Earth is also studied by hydrogeology (the science of groundwater), hydrometry (the science of methods of hydrological research), hydrobiology (the science of life in the aquatic environment), engineering hydrology (studies the effect of hydraulic structures on the regime of water bodies).
Atmospheric sciences
The study of the atmosphere is carried out by two disciplines - this is climatology and meteorology.
Meteorology is a science that studies all the processes and phenomena occurring in the earth's atmosphere. In many countries of the world it is also called atmospheric physics, which, in general, is more consistent with the subject of its study.
Meteorology is primarily interested in such processes and phenomena as cyclones and anticyclones, winds, atmospheric fronts, clouds, and so on. The structure, chemical composition and general circulation of the atmosphere are also important subjects of study of this science.
The study of the atmosphere is extremely important for navigation, agriculture and aviation. We use the products of meteorologists almost daily (we are talking about weather forecasts).
Climatology is one of the disciplines that make up the structure of general meteorology. The object of study of this science is climate - a multi-year weather regime that is characteristic of a certain (relatively large) area of the globe. Alexander von Humboldt, Francis Galton and Edmond Halley made the first contribution to the development of climatology. They can be considered the “fathers” of this scientific discipline.
The main method of scientific research in climatology is observation. Moreover, in order to compile a climatological characteristic of any territory in the temperate zone, it is necessary to conduct appropriate observations for about 30-50 years. The main climatic characteristics of the region include the following:
- Atmosphere pressure;
- air temperature;
- air humidity;
- cloudiness;
- strength and direction of the wind;
- cloudiness;
- amount and intensity of precipitation;
- frost-free period, etc.
Many modern researchers argue that global climate change (in particular, global warming) is independent of human activities and is cyclical. So, cold and wet seasons alternate with warm and wet, approximately every 35-45 years.
Biosphere Sciences
The area, geobotany, biogeocenosis, ecosystem, flora and fauna - all these concepts are actively operated by one discipline - biogeography. She is engaged in a detailed study of the "living" shell of the Earth - the biosphere, and is located just at the junction of two large areas of scientific knowledge (which sciences are specifically discussed - it is easy to guess from the name of the discipline).
Biogeography studies the laws of the distribution of living organisms on the surface of our planet, and also describes in detail the flora and fauna (flora and fauna) of its individual parts (continents, islands, countries, etc.).
The object of study of this science is the biosphere, and the subject is the features of the geographical distribution of living organisms, as well as the formation of their groups (biogeocenoses). Thus, biogeography not only tells that the polar bear lives in the Arctic, but also explains why he lives there.
In the structure of biogeography, two large sections are distinguished:
- phytogeography (or geography of flora);
- zoogeography (or geography of animals).
A great contribution to the development of biogeography as an autonomous scientific discipline was made by the Soviet scientist V. B. Sochava.
In its research, modern biogeography uses a large arsenal of methods: historical, quantitative, cartographic, method of comparison and modeling.
Physical geography of continents
There are other objects that geography studies. The continents are one of those.
The mainland (or continent) is a relatively large area of the earth’s crust that protrudes above the waters of the World Ocean and is surrounded by it on all four sides. By and large, these two concepts are synonymous words, but the "continent" is a more geographical term than the "mainland" (which is more often used in geology).
On planet Earth, it is customary to distinguish 6 continents:
- Eurasia (the largest).
- Africa (the hottest).
- North America (the most contrasting).
- South America (the most "wild" and unexplored).
- Australia (the driest).
- and Antarctica (the coldest).
However, this view on the number of continents on the planet is not shared by all countries. So, for example, in Greece it is generally accepted that there are only five continents in the world (based on the population criterion). But the Chinese are sure that there are seven continents on Earth (they consider Europe and Asia as different continents).
Some continents are completely isolated by the waters of the Ocean (such as Australia). Others are connected with each other by isthmuses (like Africa and Eurasia, or both Americas).
There is a curious theory of continental drift, which claims that before they were all a single supercontinent called Pangea. And around it one ocean "splashed" - Tethys. Later, Pangea split into two parts - Laurasia (which included modern Eurasia and North America) and Gondwana (included all other, "southern" continents). Scientists suggest, based on the law of cyclicality, that in the distant future, all the continents will again gather in one whole continent.
Physical geography of Russia
The physical geography of a particular country involves the study and characterization of such natural components as:
- geological structure and minerals;
- relief;
- climate of the territory;
- water resources;
- soil cover;
- Flora and fauna.
The nature of Russia, thanks to the vast territory of the country, is very diverse. The vast plains here border on high mountain systems (Caucasus, Sayan Mountains, Altai). The bowels of the country are rich in various minerals: oil and gas, coal, copper and nickel ores, bauxite and others.
Within Russia, seven types of climate are distinguished: from the Arctic in the far north to the Mediterranean on the Black Sea coast. The largest rivers of Eurasia flow through the territory of the state: the Volga, Yenisei, Lena and Amur. In Russia there is also the deepest lake of the planet - Baikal. Here you can see huge tracts of wetland and grandiose glaciers on the mountain peaks.
Eight natural zones are distinguished in Russia:
- zone of arctic deserts;
- tundra;
- forest tundra;
- zone of mixed and broad-leaved forests;
- forest steppe;
- steppe;
- desert and semi-desert zone;
- subtropical zone (on the Black Sea coast).
There are six types of soils within the country, among which chernozem is the most fertile soil on the planet.
Conclusion
Geography is a science that studies the functioning of the geographic shell of our planet. The latter consists of four main shells: the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Each of them is an object of research for a number of geographical disciplines. For example, the lithosphere and topography of the Earth is studied by geology and geomorphology; atmospheric studies are carried out by climatology and meteorology, hydrospheres - hydrology, etc.
In general, geography is divided into two large sections. This is a physical and geographical science and socio-economic geography. The first is interested in natural objects and processes, and the second is the phenomena that occur in society.