In the XII-XV century during the period of feudal fragmentation in Russia there were state formations - Old Russian principalities. In the X century, practice arose, which became the norm in the following century - the distribution of lands by the great Russian princes to their sons and relatives, which by the XII century led to the actual collapse of the Old Russian state.
Authority
Having received land and power in their rule, such holders of power soon began the struggle for economic and political independence from the center, and this hindered the development of the Russian principalities. In all regions, princes from the Rurikovich clan (with the exception of Novgorod, which already represented a structure somewhat similar to the republic) managed to become sovereign rulers who relied on their administrative apparatus, which consisted of a service class, and received part of the revenues from subservient territories. The vassals of the prince (boyars) with the highest officials from the clergy constituted the boyar duma - a consultative and advisory body. The prince was the main owner of the lands, some of which belonged to him personally, and he disposed of the remaining lands as a territorial ruler, and they were divided between the domain domains of the church, the conditional holdings of the boyars and their servants.
Russian principalities during the period of fragmentation
In the era of fragmentation in Russia, the socio-political structure was based on the feudal ladder system. Until the XII century, Kievan Rus and the Russian principalities were subordinate to a certain hierarchy of power. The Grand Duke of Kiev headed this feudal hierarchy, then the Galicia-Volyn and Vladimir-Suzdal princes acquired this status. The middle hierarchy was occupied by the rulers of such large principalities as Chernigov, Polotsk, Vladimir-Volynsk, Rostov-Suzdal, Turov-Pinsk, Smolensk, Murom-Ryazan, Galitsky. At the lowest level stood the boyars and their vassals (serving as untitled nobles).
By the middle of the XI century, the process of destruction of large principalities began, moreover, from the most developed agricultural plots - the districts of the Kiev and Chernihiv regions. From the end of the 12th to the beginning of the 13th century this tendency turns into a universal phenomenon. Crushing was quite fast in the Kiev, Chernihiv, Murom-Ryazan, Turovo-Pinsk principalities. To a lesser extent, this concerned the Smolensk principality, but in the Rostov-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn principalities these periods of fragmentation were periodically alternated with temporary associations under the authority of the “senior” ruler. All this time, Novgorod land managed to maintain political integrity.
Enemies
In times of feudal fragmentation, all-Russian and regional princely congresses began to play a huge role. They discussed internal and external political issues. But they could not stop the dispersion process. This moment was taken advantage of by the Tatar-Mongol hordes, the Russian lands and the principalities of Russia could not join forces to counter external aggression and therefore lost part of the vast territory of their southwestern and western lands, which were later devastated by the troops of Batu in the XIII-XIV centuries conquered by Lithuania (Polotsk, Kiev, Pereyaslavl, Chernihiv, Turov-Pinsk, Smolensk, Vladimir-Volyn) and Poland (Galitsky). Only North-Eastern Russia (Novgorod, Muromo-Ryazan and Vladimir lands) remained independent.
The real unification of the Russian principalities begins with K. XIV and n. XVI century. "Collected" by the Moscow princes of the Russian state took up the restoration of its unity.
Russian feudal principalities
The national task for the Russian princes was the liberation of Russia from the Golden Horde yoke and the restoration of the economy, and for this it was necessary for everyone to unite, but someone had to stand in the center. At that time, two strong leaders emerged - Moscow and Tver. The Tver Principality was formed in 1247 under the rule of the younger brother of Alexander Nevsky - Yaroslav Yaroslavovich. After the death of his brother, he became the ruler of the Principality of Tver (1263-1272), which was then the strongest in Russia. However, it was not at the head of the unification process.
By the fourteenth century, Moscow had risen very rapidly; before the arrival of the Tatar-Mongol, it was a small border object of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, but by the beginning of the fourteenth century it had become an important political center. And all because she occupied a very advantageous geographical position. From the south and east of the horde it was covered by the Ryazan and Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod principalities, from the north-west - Veliky Novgorod and the Tver principality. Around Moscow, the forests were impassable for the Tartar-Mongol cavalry. Therefore, the influx of population into the Moscow Grand Duchy of Russia has grown significantly. Craft and agriculture began to develop there. Moscow has also become a powerful center for land and waterways, and this has contributed to trade and military strategies.
Moscow
Through the rivers Moscow and Oka, the Principality of Moscow went to the Volga and through its tributaries connected with the Novgorod lands. The flexible policy of the Moscow princes also gave good results, since they managed to win over other Russian principalities and the church. The founder of the Moscow dynasty of princes was Daniil Aleksandrovich - the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky (1276-1303). Under his reign, the Principality of Moscow significantly increased its territory. In 1301, Kolomna conquered from the Ryazan prince withdrew to him. In 1302, the Pereyaslavl prince, who had no children, bequeathed his possessions to Moscow. In 1303, Mozhaysk joined Moscow. In three years, the territory of the Moscow principality doubled, and it became one of the largest in the north-east of Russia.
Mozhaisk - at the source of the Moscow River, and Kolomna - at the mouth, the river was completely in the control of the Moscow princes. Pereyaslavl-Zalessky - one of the most fertile areas - after being included in the Moscow principality powerfully increased its potential. Therefore, the Moscow prince began to fight with Tver for the Great reign. As the eldest branch of the Tver prince Mikhail Yaroslavovich received the right to the Great reign in the Horde.
Then in Moscow, Yuri Danilovich ruled , who was married to the sister of Khan Uzbek Konchak (after Agafye’s baptism). Khan gave him the right to a grand princely throne. Then in 1315, Mikhail defeated Yuri’s squad and captured his wife, who later died in Tver. Michael, summoned to the Horde, was executed. In 1325, Yuri was killed by the eldest son of Mikhail Tversky - Dimitry of Grozny Ochi, who was later killed by Uzbek Khan, since Uzbek Khan pursued a policy of pitting Russian princes, as a result, the Grand Duke was received by Tver Prince Alexander Mikhailovich (1326-1327).
Uprising in Tver
In 1327 there was an uprising in Tver against a relative of Uzbek Schelkan. The rebels killed many Tatars. Moscow Prince Ivan Danilovich Kalita (1325-1340), taking advantage of the moment, came to Tver with the Tatar-Mongols and suppressed popular indignation. Since that time, Moscow princes had a label for the Great reign. Kalita managed to achieve a close connection between the Moscow authorities and the church. Therefore, Metropolitan Peter moved to live in Moscow. By that time, Moscow had become not only an ideological, but also a religious center of Russia. Under the rule of the sons of Kalita, Semen Gordom (1340-1353) and Ivan the Red (1353-1359), the Kostroma, Dmitrov, Starodub lands and part of the Kaluga lands were annexed to the Principality of Moscow.
Donskoy
Prince Dmitry (1359-1389), already at the age of 9, began to rule the Moscow principality. And again the struggle began for the great princely throne of Vladimir. Opponents of Moscow began to openly support the Horde. A symbol of success and victory of the Moscow principality was the construction of the white stone Kremlin, which was the only fortress and stone fortification in northeastern Russia. Thanks to this, Moscow was able to repel claims to the all-Russian leadership of Tver, Nizhny Novgorod and repel the attack of the Lithuanian prince Olgerd. In favor of Moscow, the balance of power in Russia has changed.
And in the Horde, by the middle of the 14th century, a period of weakening of central authority and the struggle for the khan’s throne began. In 1377, a fighting clash took place on the Pian River, where the Horde crushed the Moscow army. But a year later, in 1378, on the Vozha River, the troops of Murza Begic were defeated by Dmitry.
Battle of the Kulikovo Field
In 1380, Khan Mamai decided to restore the rule of the Golden Horde over Russian lands. He teamed up with the Lithuanian prince Jagiello, and they moved to Russia. Prince Dmitry at that moment behaved like a talented commander. He moved towards the Tatars and crossed the Don, where he entered into battle with the enemy on his own territory. His second task was to prevent Mamaia from uniting the forces with Jagiello before the battle.
On September 8, 1380, on the day of the Battle of Kulikovo, the morning was foggy, only by 11 a day the duel between the Russian warrior-monk Peresvet and the Tatar warrior Chelubei began. The Tatars first defeated the advanced Russian regiment, and Mamai was already triumphing, but then the ambush regiment of Voivode Dmitry Bobrok-Volyntsev and Prince Vladimir Serpukhovsky hit the flank. By 15 o’clock the outcome of the battle was clear to everyone. The Tatars fled, and for the commander’s merits of Dmitry began to call Donskoy. The Battle of Kulikovo significantly weakened the power of the Horde, who a little later finally recognized Moscow’s supremacy over Russian lands.
Tokhtamysh
Momai after the defeat fled to Kafa (Theodosius), where he was killed. The ruler of the Horde was then Khan Tokhtamysh. In 1382, he suddenly attacked Moscow. At that time, Donskoy was not in the city, since he had gone north to collect a new militia. The population fought bravely, organizing the defense of Moscow. As a result, Tokhtamysh outwitted them, promising not to rob the city, but to fight only against Donskoy. But, breaking into Moscow, he defeated the city and imposed a tribute to it.
Before his death, Donskoy transferred the right to the Great reign of Vladimir to his son Basil I, without asking the Horde for the right to label. Thus merged together the Russian principalities - Moscow and Vladimir.
Timur
In 1395, the ruler Timur Tamerlan, who conquered Central Asia, Persia, Siberia, Baghdad, India, Turkey, went to the Horde and, defeating it, then moved to Moscow. Basil I by this time gathered a militia in Kolomna. A protector of the Russian land, an icon of the Mother of God of Vladimir, was brought to Moscow from Vladimir. When Timur approached Moscow in the second quarter and stopped in the Yelets region, after a while he suddenly changed his mind about going to Russia. According to legend, this is associated with the appearance in a dream of Timur Mother of the Virgin Mary herself.
Feudal Wars and the Union of Florence
After the death of Basil I at the end of the XIV century, the struggle of the Russian principalities and feuds began, called the "feudal wars". In the Principality of Moscow between the sons, and later the grandchildren of Dmitry Donskoy, there was a real battle for the possession of the princely throne. As a result, he went to Basil II the Dark, the Principality of Moscow increased during this time by 30 times.
Basil II refused to accept the union (1439) and stand under the leadership of the pope. This union was imposed on Russia under the pretext of saving Byzantium from the Ottomans. Metropolitan of Russia Isidore (Greek), who supported the union, was immediately deposed. And then Ryazan Bishop Jonah became Metropolitan. This was the beginning of the independence of the Russian Orthodox Church from the Patriarchate of Constantinople.
After the Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453, the head of the Russian church began to be identified already in Moscow. The Orthodox Church actively supported the struggle for the unity of the Russian lands. Now, the struggle for power was not waged by individual Russian principalities, but it was waged within the princely house. But already the process of formation of the Great Russian State became irreversible, and Moscow became the recognized capital of all.