When considering the development process in a general form, philosophers formulated its key laws. One of them defines a strategy for progress. It is called the law of negation of negation. In accordance with it, development occurs spirally. At each turn, there is a repetition of processes, but at higher levels. Another law defines development tactics. Hegel called it the transition of quantity into quality. In accordance with this law, development consists in a gradual increase in the number of changes that do not have explicit new features. But after reaching a certain value, a qualitative leap occurs. Hegel called this limit a measure.
The process of development of social consciousness, in particular in the research and cultural sphere, occurs through the accumulation of certain quantitative changes. When they achieve the measure, a qualitative leap occurs - the scientific revolution. A paradigm shift is a key feature of the development process. Let us further consider how it occurs and what events can testify to it.
Paradigm - what are these in simple words?
This term has Greek roots. The model of formulating the problem and its solution, which is a priority for a certain period, is the paradigm. What are these simple words? Paradeigma is a definite fashion for the method of setting and solving research problems. Deviation from it with a high degree of probability will not find a proper understanding among scientists. In practice, there are various examples of it. A paradigm shift is most easily illustrated by a comparison of a given period.
Specifics of occurrence
A paradigm shift is a long process. It does not happen quickly and is accompanied by the gradual introduction of a new idea into the consciousness of an increasing number of scientists. After some time, having spread, the new model becomes the norm of perception. Many things in life are done by analogy. So, the solution of mathematical problems is carried out using well-known solutions. Facts that contradict the established model are usually perceived as heresy or are completely ignored. Nevertheless, as the history of science testifies, a paradigm shift is a natural phenomenon.
Schedule
When new facts reach a certain amount, there is a rapid destruction of the established model. On its basis, a new system is being formed. It uses other concepts and methods by which an adequate interpretation of the accumulated information is carried out. A change in scientific paradigm is often illustrated with a graph. Time t is plotted along the horizontal axis, and certain abstract quantities n and p are plotted along the vertical axis. The latter characterize the degree of development of discipline and the level of technological progress over the specified period. The growth of the latter is indicated by a dotted line, and the change of the former by a solid line. Horizontal sections correspond to steady patterns. On steep sections, a paradigm shift is taking place. This phenomenon has received the corresponding name in modern literature. In steep sections, the qualitative leap that was mentioned above is taking place. It is called the scientific and technological revolution.
Natural History Development
The most famous ancient written sources include information from early China, Greece and Egypt. Their age is about three thousand years. Basically, they contain information from the field of medicine, mathematics, astronomy, understanding the basics of being. Scientific activity in antiquity was carried out by scattered scientists - sages. At that time, there was no clear model of perception, which was due to the almost complete absence of interaction between philosophers. This is probably due to the emergence of key ideas of the basic theories used today.
For example, not many people know why the division of the circle is carried out exactly 360 degrees. Meanwhile, such a model arose in ancient Egypt. It was believed that the year includes 360 days. During this time, the sun describes the circle. Accordingly, one day was equal to the movement of the Star on 1/360 of the arc. Subsequently, this value was borrowed by the Arabs and received the name "degree". In the works of ancient Greek philosophers, one can consider a certain semblance of a paradigm. Ancient scientists were characterized by the idea of the integrity of the universe. At the same time, natural science was not divided by them into separate disciplines and acted as natural philosophy.
Ancient thinkers
The most famous ancient scholars include Thales from Miletus, Ptolemy, Archimedes, Democritus and, of course, Aristotle. The first, apparently, was the first to tell the world about the phenomenon of electrification. Democritus is credited with the theory of the atomic structure of substances. Archimedes laid the foundations of hydrostatics and mechanics. Ptolemy developed a diagram of the structure of the universe, with which he justified his astrological constructions.
Meanwhile, Aristotle is considered a key figure in the development of the scientific paradigm. He was the mentor of Macedon. The great commander never forgot about his teacher. Aristotle received not only a variety of material values, but also documents that contained the wisdom of the civilizations captured by Macedonian. Due to such support, the scientist was able to form a large scientific school. Aristotle formulated the foundations of formal logic, created the first systematic collection of all theories of his time. It was his school that became the community that shaped the ancient paradigm in science. Subsequently, the views of the scientist canonized the Roman Catholic Church. His ideas remained priority for a very long time. The paradigm shift in scientific knowledge at that time was severely suppressed. The Holy Inquisition played a special role in this. This is confirmed by the examples of Nicholas Copernicus and Galileo Galilei.
Weightless theory
A paradigm shift is, first and foremost, the destruction of previously existing ideas. With the development of society, many of Aristotle's views ceased to be relevant and sufficient. Over time, the explanation of many natural phenomena was based on the idea of weightless, subtle substances that acted as carriers of certain physical qualities. The explanation of optical effects began to be based on the theory of the propagation of oscillations in weightless ethers. Heat began to be identified with an all-pervasive liquid, which was called the calorific.
Magnetic and electrical phenomena have also been explained. In particular, their existence was associated with the presence of two liquids having heteropolar charges, and one magnetic. Subsequently, Franklin, president of America, left only one of them. Its presence was indicated by the sign “+”, and the disadvantage, respectively, “-”. In the modern world, this model is reflected in the division of charges into negative and positive. The theory of weightless has long ceased to exist, but the designations adopted in it have remained.
Features
The use of a paradigm implies the application of a historical approach in the discussion of a particular theory. In the framework of social development, the existence of truth refers to subjective phenomena. The following are called the key reasons for the paradigm shift. Changing patterns is determined by the passage of time and, accordingly, the development of the perception of society. Thomas Kun, an American philosopher and scientist, explained how theories are replaced. The model adopted at a specific time outlines a certain range of issues and problems that have both meaning and a solution. All events and phenomena that do not fall into it do not deserve consideration. This suggests that at each stage of the development of society there is a normal theory that operates within the framework of the established model.
"Structure of scientific revolutions"
This is the name of the most influential, according to the scientists of the twentieth century, book that reveals the essence of changes in the consciousness of society. Thomas Kun, its author, looked at development as the destruction of old and the emergence of new psychological views on the problem. Due to them, in his opinion, new theories and hypotheses arise. The concept of paradigm shift, developed by the author, did not give answers to many questions. However, it showed in a new way the essence of pressing problems in their analysis. Kuhn's work is courageous and contains innovative ideas. This led to the popularity of the book and the emergence of many disputes around it.
Theory content
By the definition of a philosopher, a scientific revolution is an epistemological change in an existing model. By it, the author means the achievements recognized by all scientists and giving for a certain period a scheme of formulating problems and solutions to the community. A paradigm shift is, according to the philosopher, the process of detecting anomalies that cannot be explained using a universally accepted model. The current theory should be considered not just as the current scheme, but also as a whole worldview, in which it is present along with the conclusions drawn from its use.
The conflict of paradigms that takes place in the process of qualitative leaps represents, first of all, the inconsistency of different value systems, methods of solving, measuring, observing, practicing, but not only pictures of the world. The model proposed by the author differs from the theory of neo-positivists in that it focuses on the individuality of researchers, but not on abstracting activities exclusively philosophical or logical.
Practical explanation
An example of how the replacement of the paradigm forces us to consider the same information in different ways is the optical illusion of a duck-hare. Sooner or later, enough information will be accumulated within the discipline about significant anomalies that conflict with the existing theory. At such a moment, a scientific crisis sets in. During it, tests of new ideas are carried out, which until a certain time were not taken into account or were rejected. As a result, the crisis in science ends with a paradigm shift. The new model is gaining its supporters. From this moment begins a kind of intellectual battle of the adherents of the old and the paradigm that has replaced it. The increase in the number of competing options, the desire and willingness to experience something new, the discussion of fundamental principles indicate the transition of the normal research process to an extraordinary one.
An example from the physics of the 20th century can be the replacement of Maxwell's electromagnetic worldview by a relativistic Einstein. This transition was followed by a series of heated debate with empirical evidence. As a result of disputes, Einstein's theory was recognized more generally.
Events
In practice, there are several classic examples of paradigm shift. Meanwhile, a number of scientists claim that observing the net replacement of one model by another can be considered solely on a rather abstract section of any change. If you study the process in detail, it is really quite difficult to determine the moment of the jump. The following events fall under Kuhn's definition:
- Newton's unification of classical physics into a related mechanistic theory.
- The development of the Darwinian theory of evolution. She discarded creationism from the perspective of a fundamental explanation of the diversity of life on Earth.
- The development of quantum physics. Discipline predetermined the emergence of classical mechanics.
- Acceptance of the theory of tectonic plates as an explanation of large-scale changes in the geology of the planet.
Classical theory
It finally formed by the beginning of the 20th century. It was based on the principle of causality. It is based on the notion that the investigation unambiguously and completely follows from the circumstances that give rise to it. Such an interpretation of the causal relationship provoked, in turn, the idea of the complete predetermination of upcoming events. The essence of the theory was expressed in the principle of scientific determinism, deduced by Laplace. In accordance with it, all events can be calculated if a certain number of equations from classical physics are solved. Everything seemed clear and simple, and many phenomena were explained thanks to this model.
However, the improvement of technology, electronic devices in the first place, gave rise to a new scientific and technological revolution. A qualitative leap has occurred relatively recently. Literature published in the middle of the last century still contains signs of disputes, justifications for the correctness of the new. At the same time, the modern generation takes these innovations for granted.
Conclusion
The scientific and technological revolution, which resulted in the emergence of a modern theory of worldview, falls on the first decades of the 20th century. It was marked first of all by the formulation of quantum theory, which negated the existence of classical determinism. This revolution also led to dramatic changes in understanding the essence of chemical bonds. The new paradigm is distinguished by its interpretation of the principle of causality. A key characteristic of the current model is the recognition of the ambiguity of the consequences arising from specific circumstances. Causes give rise to certain events with a certain degree of probability.
It is worth saying that many creators of the modern revolution in the field of science and technology, being adherents of the classical natural science model of perceiving the world, died, failing to reconcile themselves completely to the lack of the opportunity to explain the discoveries made by them using the previously used concepts.