Human development is a process that begins from conception and continues until death. From childhood to adulthood, physical growth occurs. But cognitive development does not stop throughout life. What are the basic theories of periodization of the human life cycle?
Human development in terms of biology
Various theories and stages of human development are developed in accordance with certain criteria, which are taken to determine the stages of life. In biology, the first of these factors is the fertilization of the egg. The scientific name for human development is ontogenesis. The fusion of the egg and sperm gives rise to ontogenesis. Since its primary stages occur in the female body, ontogenesis is divided into prenatal and postnatal.
The prenatal period is divided into embryonic (from conception to 2 months) and fetal (from the 3rd to the 9th month). During the embryonic period, there is an increasing increase in the number of cells that take on different functions in the future organism. During the second month of development, internal organs begin to form. Formed head, neck, torso, limbs.
The birth of every child is considered a miracle. Despite the fact that all over the world this miracle happens every moment, many interesting features are associated with it. For example, about 300 million male sperm take part in the race preceding conception. About the same is the number of people living in the United States of America. By the time of birth, the baby’s brain is already equipped with ten million nerve cells.
The development of the body from the womb to old age. Growth jumps
From the third month of fetal development, an increase in the body occurs, which continues after the baby is born. And from the moment of birth, the process of adapting the body to environmental conditions begins. The child acquires new skills that are superimposed on his heredity. Accelerated growth of the body is observed over several stages: this is the period of early childhood (from one to three years), from 5 to 7 years, and also during puberty (from 11 to 16 years). By 20-25, the growth of the human body is nearing completion. Now comes a relatively stable period in the life cycle - maturity. After 55-60 years, the human body begins to gradually age.
Biogenetic law
In biology, there is the Haeckel-Müller law , or biogenetic law. It says that each individual in his development to some extent repeats the stages that his ancestors went through. In other words, a person from his conception goes through those stages of the evolution of living organisms that have unfolded throughout history. This law was first introduced by the scientist Ernst Haeckel in 1866.
The psychological development of a person from childhood to adulthood
For the first time in domestic science, the stages of human development began to be considered at the beginning of the 20th century. When dividing the life cycle, factors such as physical growth, spiritual and psychological development were taken into account. Prominent Russian scientists worked on the division of this period into phases: N. I. Pirogov, L. S. Vygotsky, K. D. Ushinsky. According to tradition, several stages were identified: the period of intrauterine development, childhood, adolescence and adolescence.
The intrauterine development, in turn, was divided into several stages. The first of them is prenatal. Its duration is 2 weeks from conception. The next stage is called germinal and lasts two months. This is followed by the stage of the fetus, continuing until the birth of the baby.
According to the criteria of scientists, childhood is also divided into several important stages. This is infancy (from 0 to a year), early age (1-3 years), preschool age (3-7 years), as well as primary school age (from 6-7 to 10-11 years). These periods are characterized by various stages of development of self-education in humans. An important role is played by leading activities characteristic of a certain age. For example, for early childhood, the so-called subject-manipulative activity is characteristic. The child learns to use the objects that surround him. And for younger students, for example, such an activity is educational. Children begin to master theoretical forms of thinking. They learn to learn and use the theoretical knowledge gained.
What happens in childhood?
The early stages of human development - this is the time when his socialization occurs and he becomes a full member of society. Childhood is considered the age at which the psychological maturity of the personality is formed. Interestingly, the duration of childhood in our era is not equal to the time that was allotted to this stage of human life earlier. In different eras, childhood periods lasted for different times, and therefore age-related periodization is always considered the product of a particular culture and civilization. For example, at the beginning of the 20th century. the youth period ended very quickly - as early as 13-14, many children began to work on an equal footing with adults. The stages of development of human society determine the boundaries of the age periods characteristic of their era.
Adolescence and youth
The next period of development is adolescence. This includes the teenage stage, or puberty (it lasts on average up to 15 years), as well as the youthful (lasting up to 22-23 years). At this time, adolescents begin to take shape a certain picture of the world, an idea of their place in society.
Different researchers differently determine the stages of development of human life, in particular adolescence and youth. Some scholars distinguish early youth (from 15 to 18 years), as well as late (from 18 to 23 years). One way or another, by the end of the period of youth, the physiological formation of a person ends. At this time, his self-consciousness finally takes shape, issues of professional self-realization come to the fore. In the early stages of youth, interests, plans for the future, the need for work are formed, the independence of man, including financial, is affirmed.
Adulthood
The next step in the human life cycle is adulthood. It represents the longest stage. In developed countries, for example, adulthood takes up to three quarters of the total life expectancy. At this stage, three periods are distinguished: early adulthood, or youth; middle adulthood; as well as late adulthood (this includes aging and old age).
The main feature that is characteristic of the period of old age is the wisdom accumulated throughout life. How old a person will be is largely dependent on his lifestyle in adulthood. The main need of the elderly is not only the care of loved ones, but also the opportunity to share experience.
Life gains during adulthood
Scientists emphasize that adulthood and maturity are not equivalent concepts. In contrast to the previous stages at which physical maturation occurs, the period of adulthood is more associated with cognitive development. At this point, people learn to take responsibility for their decisions. A person has certain character traits. This, for example, firmness, honesty, ability to compassion. The scientist E. Erickson claims that at this stage of human development, the formation of self-identity occurs. Adulthood, the researcher notes, is the age at which important acts are committed. The main features of this period are productivity, creativity, as well as some complacency. A person seeks to achieve heights in his professional sphere, to become a better parent, to provide support to loved ones.
Work and care are signs of an adult. If an individual calms down in relation to any sphere of his life, stagnation and even degradation can occur here. These negative phenomena manifest themselves in preoccupation with their problems and self-pity. Such problems are overcome by forming attitudes to overcome problems, and not by constantly complaining of an evil fate.
Human developmental stages according to Freud
Classical psychoanalysis does not lose its relevance today. Freud's theories are currently one of the fundamental concepts of personality. From his point of view, human development is a process of adaptation to the external conditions of the world. The scientist identified three layers of the human psyche - the so-called “It”, or “Eid”; "I", or "Ego"; and also “Superego” - “Superego”. "Eid" is the unconscious, or primitive part of the personality. The ego is the conscious and rational part. The “Super-Ego” is a certain ideal that a person aspires to, his conscience is included here. Parental attitudes, as well as social norms accepted in society, are rooted in this part of the personality in the development process.
Currently, many theories and stages of human evolution, especially in psychology, include information received by Freud. He believed that the main stages of human development are oral (from birth to one and a half years), anal (from one to 3 years), phallic (from 3 to 6 years), latent (from 6-7 to 12 years), and also genital (12-18 years old). The Austrian scientist believed that the stages of development are a kind of steps for a person, at any of which he can "get stuck" even to the very end of his life. Then, certain components of child sexuality will enter into the neurotic complex of an adult.